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Pitfalls    in    English 

and 

How  to  Avoid  Them 


By 

Sophie  G.  Hadida 


G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York  —  London 

Cbe  Itnicfterbocfter  press 

1927 


PITFALLS  IN  ENGLISH 

Copyright,  1927 

by 

Sophie  C.  Hadida 

Published,  October,  1927 
Second  impression,  November,  1927 


Made  in  the  United  States  of  America 


FOREWORD 

There  is  a  reason  for  everything  under  the 
sun.  There  is  a  reason  for  every  book — even 
though  "of  making  many  books  there  is  no 
end." 

This  book,  however,  is  like  no  other  book 
ever  written  or  published.  The  difference  lies 
in  its  origin  and  in  its  method. 

It  came  to  be,  not  because  of  its  author,  but 
because  of  YOU,  its  reader  and  owner.  Wher- 
ever the  author  went,  YOU  furnished  the  mate- 
rial; YOU  gave  the  ideas;  YOU  evoked  the 
method. 

Were  YOU  a  graduate  of  a  grammar  school, 
of  high  school,  of  business  college,  or  of  uni- 
versity; were  YOU  represented  in  the  marts  of 
labor,  business,  or  finance;  were  YOU  stenog- 
rapher, clerk,  salesman,  housewife,  or  society 
woman,  YOU,  each  and  all,  made  your  contri- 
bution to  this  book;  each  of  YOU  is  here  em- 
bodied in  one  form  or  another. 

Sometimes,  walking  on  the  street,  riding  in 
train  or  trolley,  coming  in  contact  with  YOU 
at  theater,  lecture,  or  art  gallery,  at  hotel  or  in 
your  home,  I  have  seen  YOU  carefully  dressed, 
well  groomed,  and  trim :  but  the  casual  word  has 

[Hi] 


Foreword 

shown  marked  discrepancy  between  the  dress- 
ing of  your  body  and  the  dressing  of  your  mind. 

You  would  not  want  to  appear  anywhere  un- 
kempt, slovenly,  frayed,  or  spotted.  You  know 
that  such  attire  is  a  poor  letter  of  introduc- 
tion. Neat  English,  careful  pronunciation,  cor- 
rect construction  are  equally  essential  in  creating 
and  continuing  a  good  impression.  Style  is 
shown  in  speech  as  well  as  in  dress  and  manner. 

Well-chosen  words,  correctly  pronounced  and 
grammatically  used,  are  the  hall-mark  of  enlight- 
ened persons.  They  constitute  your  passport 
to  culture  and  advancement.  They  are  indis- 
pensable to  progress  in  business  and  society. 
They  mark  your  station;  they  open  and  close 
doors  to  further  opportunity,  to  fuller  enjoy- 
ment. 

Have  you  had  the  advantages  of  only  an  ele- 
mentary education,  here  is  a  book  for  your  daily 
need.  Have  you  had  a  secondary  education, 
this  book  will  supplement  your  knowledge. 
Have  you  had  a  college  course,  this  book  will 
recall  forgotten,  unused  lessons. 

Pitfalls  in  English  is  not  a  grammar.  It  is  a 
friend  who,  interested  in  you,  points  out  the 
mistakes  which  you  unconsciously  make,  tells 
you  why  you  make  them,  explains  to  you  how  to 
correct  them,  and  shows  you  how  to  test  the  cor- 
rectness of  your  decision. 

[iv] 


Foreword 

Pitfalls  in  English  is  unlike  any  other  text- 
book in  English  in  that  it  contains  not  one  tech- 
nical term.  As  its  name  indicates,  it  points  out 
the  words  in  the  use  of  which  you  should  take 
particular  care  {who,  whom,  lie,  lay,  affect,  effect, 
I,  me,  and  many  others),  and  gives  infallible 
devices,  in  language  which  every  one  can  under- 
stand, for  the  correct  use  of  these  words.  It 
presents  also  many  pitfalls  of  which  to  beware 
in  pronunciation  and  punctuation.  One  sec- 
tion is  devoted  to  correspondence. 

Every  question  that  may  occur  to  you  is 
anticipated  and  answered  in  order  that  you  may 
feel  that  you  are  having  individual  instruction 
under  a  private  teacher. 

What  more  can  you  wish.'^  No  more  uncer- 
tainty for  you!  Each  word  slips  into  its  nook 
with  ease  and  accuracy. 

This  compact  little  book  is  published  in  re- 
sponse to  the  compelling  request  of  hundreds  of 
enthusiastic  young  men  and  women  who  have 
taken  the  course  somewhat  abridged  under  the 
title  of  "English  Improvement." 

Pitfalls  is  dedicated  to  YOU  and  YOU  and 
YOU  and  YOU. 


My    appreciation    is    heartily    expressed    to 
Sophie  L.  Blakeslee  who  put  me  into  the  profes- 

[V] 


Foreword 

sional  position  which,  because  of  the  varied 
types  of  pupils,  forced  me  to  originate  this 
method;  to  the  interested  pupils  who  have  en- 
couraged me  to  publish  it;  and  to  all  my  friends 
who  have  patiently  tolerated  my  absorption  in 
the  work  of  preparing  Pitfalls  in  English, 


Sophie  C.  Hadida 


Buffalo,  New  York 
September,  1927 


[vi] 


TRIBUTE 

Something  within  you  has  spoken.  You 
feel  the  urge  for  greater  knowledge;  else  why 
would  you  have  this  book  in  your  possession? 

A  key  to  a  treasure  is  yours.  Covet  it.  Once 
the  treasure  of  good  English  is  yours,  you  can 
walk  with  kings.     None  can  take  it  from  you. 

Nothing  is  more  beautiful  than  correct  Eng- 
lish, spoken  or  written  in  the  simplest  manner. 
A  beautiful  thought  is  at  once  marred  if  there 
be  the  slightest  error  in  grammar. 

As  you  study  and  learn  you  will  grow.  Your 
plane  of  living  will  change — the  choicest  litera- 
ture will  have  poignant  appeal;  reading  will 
take  on  new  interest;  you  will  grow  more  ob- 
servant. You  will  not  avoid  persons  who  speak 
good  English;  you  will  seek  them. 

In  your  hand  you  hold  this  book.  Pitfalls  in 
English.  You  are  fortunate  indeed.  It  tells 
so  simply  how  to  correct  common  errors  in  Eng- 
lish. Each  lesson  that  illustrates  a  difficult  point 
in  grammar  can  be  compared  to  an  example  in 
arithmetic.  You  can  test  your  knowledge  and 
prove  the  problem. 

I  am  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  contents  of  this  book.     Eight  years 

[vii] 


Tribute 

ago  it  was  ray  privilege  to  have  the  author  tc 
teach  me  **  Correct  English."  I  did  |not  hav< 
the  book.  The  ease  with  which  I  mastered  in\ 
"Pitfalls  in  English,"  due  to  the  simj)li(ity  o 
the  lessons,  whetted  my  taste  for  more  English 

Subsequently  I  l>ecame  advertising  directoi 
for  one  of  the  finest  department  stores  in  tin 
country — a  position  I  still  hold. 

I  have  known  of  other  young  persons  whc 
have  stud.ed  under  Miss  Iladida,  who  have 
made  great  advancement  in  social  and  busines> 
life. 


As  we  grow  older  life  holds  for  us  that  which 
we  have  stored  up  within  us. 

Correct  English  enriches  our  lives — our  think- 
ing and  understanding  grow  apace.  BooLs  read, 
leave  their  traces  in  our  minds.  We  have  put 
away  thoughts,  passages,  experiences  of  others 
that  we  may  call  forth  at  our  will.  We  .shape 
our  personalities.     We  find  happiness. 

From  this  book  simply  written,  if  you  so  desire, 
you  may  benefit  greatly.     You  will  enjoy  read- 
ing it,  studying  it,  making  it  your  own.     It  was* 
intended  for  you. 

Sophie  Alexander 

Buffalo,  New  York 
April  12,  1927 

[  Vili  ] 


Pitfalls  ill   English 

and 

How  to  Avoid   Them 


(I) 


Pitfalls  in  English  and 
How  to  Avoid  Them 

HOW  ABOUT  YOUR  SPEECH? 

Today  you  make  up  your  mind  that  you  are 
going  to  improve  your  speech,  perhaps  for  the 
gratification  of  your  critical  friend  who  is  about 
to  spend  a  month  with  you;  perhaps  to  avoid 
the  unfavorable  comments  of  your  cousin  who 
has  just  arrived  from  college;  or  maybe  for  the 
benefit  of  your  employer  who  thinks  that  at  times 
your  language  lapses  into  the  ordinary.  Maybe 
you  have  recently  acquired  a  social  acquaint- 
ance who,  through  the  medium  of  correct  Eng- 
lish, seems  to  radiate  a  higher  sort  of  mental 
atmosphere,  the  superiority  of  which  you  feel 
and  into  which  you  would  like  to  be  submerged. 
You  wonder  how  you  can,  with  minimum  effort, 
time,  and  expense,  attain  maximum  speech 
improvement. 

You  should  take  as  much  pride  in  your  speech 
as  in  your  appearance.  K  you  aspire  to  social 
and  business  prestige,  you  should  be  ever  watch- 
ful to  keep  your  language  correct,  pleasing,  and 
free  from  slang. 

[3] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Slang  cripples  your  speech  and  causes  you  to 
appear  at  a  disadvantage.  If  you  always  say 
"bawled  us  out"  for  "reprimanded"  or  "found 
fault  with"  or  "criticized,"  you  will  entirely 
forget  these  expressions  and  when  you  wish  to 
make  a  favorable  impression,  the  correct  words 
will  not  come  to  your  aid,  but  your  quick  tongue 
will  blurt  out  the  vulgarism,  "bawled  us  out." 

There  are  some  persons  who  argue  that  cer- 
tain slang  expressions  are  forceful.  They  are. 
"Pep"  is  an  expressive  word.  Perhaps  in  a  few 
years  it  will  be  included  in  the  dictionary  with- 
out the  stigma  of  the  term  "colloquialism"  or 
"vulgarism."  Those,  however,  who  constantly 
use  "pep"  forget  that  there  are  such  legitimate 
words  as  "vivacity,"  "life,"  "animation," 
"vigor,"  which  give  an  air  of  dignity  and  ele- 
gance to  conversation. 

The  renovation  of  your  speech  will  take  time. 
You  will  find  that  you  cannot  eliminate  in  a 
short  period  all  the  errors  which  you  have  care- 
lessly made  during  the  years  you  have  lived  in 
disregard  of  the  value  of  correct  speech.  Begin 
at  once  to  discard  the  vulgarisms.  To  eliminate 
slang  is  possible  whether  you  have  had  educa- 
tional advantages  or  not,  and  for  this  purpose 
you  require  neither  book  nor  teacher. 

Do  not  pick  up  every  new,  popular,  and  per- 
tinent expression  that  you  hear  on  the  vaude- 

[4l 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

ville  stage.  If  today  a  comedian  uses  the  ex- 
pression "old  dear"  and  tomorrow  you  hear 
"old  dear"  used  in  lunch  rooms,  behind  counters, 
— in  fact,  all  over — be  assured  that  that  is  the 
expression  for  you  to  avoid  until  you  are  reason- 
ably certain  that  the  ridiculous  term  of  endear- 
ment is  finding  its  way  into  the  conversation  of 
cultured  persons  and  seems  to  be  sanctioned  by 
good  writers.  Such  a  word  is  "movies."  At 
first  the  purist  said  "moving  picture  theater." 
A  long  expression  for  a  popular  amusement  could 
not  possibly  survive.  Now,  those  who  were 
strong  in  their  opposition  to  the  word  "movies," 
which  they  considered  inelegant,  are  using  it. 

It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  record  illus- 
trations of  slang  expressions  when  urging  their 
elimination;  but  a  few  are  presented  because 
perhaps  you  do  not  realize  how  many  cheap 
phrases  you  are  using,  and  that  many  of  them 
are  classified  as  slang.  Those  marked  with  a 
single  asterisk  (*)  are  inelegant,  if  not  slang. 
The  groups  of  two,  three,  and  four  asterisks 
refer  to  notes  similarly  marked. 

HOW  MANY  OF  THESE  ARE  YOURS? 

by  gosh  *sub  (substitute) 

by  golly  ^subbing  (substituting) 

swipe  *I'm  full  up   (I've  had 
kid  (child)  sufficient) 

[5] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


*kiddies  (children) 

stop  your  kiddin* 

dope  (drug) 

dope  it  out 

what's  the  dope  on 
that 

vamp 

bunch  of  us  fellas 
*gang  of  us  girls 

get  me 

I  don't  getcha 

bawl  us  out 

for  land's  sake 

you've       said       a 
mouthful 

gave  us  an  earful 

cop 
**'nd  everything 

you  betcha 

listen 

listen  here 

bet  your  life 

•1*  •!•  I*  Q  ^W^ 

****sure  (yes) 
****surely  (certainly) 
talking        through 

your  hat 
damn  (profane) 
*flu  (influenza) 


*I'm       dry       (I'm 

thirsty) 
I'll  say 
I'll  say  so 
I'll  tell  the  world 
two  bucks 
buck  up 
I'm   shy   a   penny 

(short) 
gink 

guy 

swell 

what  do  you  know 

about  that 
the  darn  thing 
ayah  (yes) 
yep  (yes) 
'atta  boy 
cut  it  out 
hootch 
booze 

I  was  sore  at  him 
what's  doin' 
what's  new 
it  sure  does 
believe  me 
they     serve     good 

eats 
bean  (head) 


[6] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

There  are  many  other  undesirable  expressions. 

**Avoid  the  use  of  'nd  everything. 

Poor:  The   boy   went   down   town   to   buy   his 

schoolbooks  'nd  everything. 
Good:  The  boy  went   down   town  to   buy   his 

schoolbooks. 

***Avoid  the  use  of  see. 

Poor:  The  doctor  came  at  eight  o'clock,  see. 
After  that  no  one  was  allowed  to  visit 
the  patient,  see.  He  had  tempera- 
ture, see;  and  the  doctor  was  afraid 
that  he  might  have  diphtheria,  see. 
(This  is  no  exaggeration.) 

Good:  The  doctor  came  at  eight  o'clock.  After 
that  no  one  was  allowed  to  visit  the 
patient.  He  had  temperature  and  the 
doctor  was  afraid  that  he  might  have 
diphtheria. 

****Avoid  the  use  of  sure,  surely,  used  in  the 
following  ways: 

Poor:  Excuse  me  please.     Sure. 
Good:  Excuse  me  please.     Certainly. 

Poor:  Excuse  me  please.     Surely. 
Good:  Excuse  me  please.     Certainly. 

[7] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Begin  today  the  lessons  on  the  various  prob- 
lems presented  in  this  little  book  which  points 
out  the  pitfalls  and  shows  you  how  to  avoid 
them.  Master  each  one  before  attacking  the 
next.  If  you  are  conscious  of  a  mistake,  take 
the  time  to  correct  it,  aloud  or  mentally,  saying, 
for  example,  "I  saw,'*  when  perhaps  you  have 
said,  "I  seen."  If  you  are  among  intimates, 
pass  your  error  off  with  a  jocular  ease,  com- 
menting, "There  I  am  again!  I  meant  to  say, 
*I  felt  bad— not  badly.'"  This  will  have  the 
effect  of  making  your  associates  careful  of  their 
speech  and  the  result  will  be  that  the  English 
in  your  immediate  circle  of  friends  will  improve 
and  react  in  a  helpful  way  upon  your  own. 

Do  not  lapse  into  carelessness,  even  for  a 
moment,  after  making  the  resolution  to  im- 
prove your  speech.  Be  as  careful  about  your 
manner  of  expression,  your  voice,  your  pronun- 
ciation, with  the  man  who  collects  the  ashes  as 
you  are  with  your  minister.  At  the  end  of  six 
months  you  will  have  become  so  interested  in 
correct  English  and  so  alive  to  its  influence  and 
power,  beauty  and  charm,  that  you  will  pursue 
the  subject  further  by  reading  in  your  moments 
of  relaxation  the  best  books  obtainable  and  seek- 
ing the  company  of  those  who  speak  well;  and 
you  will  get  additional  enjoyment  from  a  fine 
lecture  or  sermon  because,  besides  absorbing  the 

[8] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

thought  expressed,  you  will  be  keenly  alive,  as 
never  before,  to  the  neat,  orderly  succession  of 
words  which  every  good  speaker  and  writer 
employs. 

STUDY  THE  FOLLOWING  SENTENCES: 

Wrong  :    New  York  is  larger  than  any  city  in  the 

United  States. 
Right:      New  York  is  larger  than  any  other  city 

in  the  United  States. 
Bight:     New  York  is  the  largest    city  in  the 

United  States. 

New  York  is  in  the  United  States.  New  York 
cannot  be  larger  than  itself. 

Exercise  : 

Substitute  other  names  in  place  of  New  York 
and  city  and  form  original  sentences  using  the 
word  other. 

Illustration  : 

Lake  Superior  is  larger  than  any  other  of  the 
Great  Lakes. 

John  is  taller  than  any  other  boy  in  his  class. 

Also  Right: 

Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
John  is  the  tallest  boy  in  his  class. 

[9] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong  :  Buffalo  is  not  as  large  as  Chicago. 
Right  :     Buffalo  is  not  so  large  as  Chicago. 

See  page  155. 

If  the  word  not  were  omitted,  the  two  small 
words  would  be  as-as.  When  the  word  not  is 
used,  it  should  be  followed  by  so  in  sentences  of 
this  kind. 

I  am  as  tall  as  my  sister — is  correct  because 
there  is  no  not  in  the  sentence. 

Exercise: 

Originate  many  sentences,  some  with  not  and 
some  without  not,  in  which  you  compare  two 
things.  Use  as-as  when  you  do  not  use  not; 
use  so-as  when  you  use  not. 

Illustration: 

I  am  not  so  tall  as  you. 
He  is  as  bright  as  a  dollar. 

Wrong:  You  may  go  ^providing  that  you  do  not 

go  near  the  w^ater. 
Right:     You  may  go  'provided  that  you  do  not 
go  near  the  water. 
See  pages  223  and  224. 

Originate  many  sentences  until  your  ear 
becomes  accustomed  to  the  word  provided. 

Illustration: 

I  will  give  him  a  watch  provided  that  he  will 
not  wear  it  to  school. 

[lO] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  What  kind  of  a  car  do  you  drive? 
Right:     What  kind  of  car  do  you  drive? 

See  pages  119  and  120. 

Make  up  many  sentences  similar  to  the  cor- 
rect one. 

Illustration  : 

I  like  that  kind  of  sweater. 

Wrong:  1.  If  anyone  has  lost  their  gloves,  they 
will  find  them  at  the  desk. 

Wrong:  2.  If  smybody  wants  an  apple,  they  may 
get  it  from  me. 

Wrong:  3.   Everyone  kept  their  hat  on. 

Wrong:  4.    ^Yeiybody  has  their  own  cares. 

Wrong:  5.    Each  man  has  their  sister  with  them. 

Right:  1.  If  anyone  has  lost  his  (her)  gloves, 
he  (she)  may  find  them  at  the 
desk. 

Right:  2.  If  a.ny body  wants  an  apple,  he  (she) 
may  get  it  from  me. 

Right:     3.   Everyone  kept  his  hat  on. 

Right:     4.   'Everybody  has  his  own  cares. 

Right:     5.   Each  man  has  his  sister  with  him. 
See  pages  162-165. 

Wrong:  I  felt  badly  about  the  matter. 
Right:     I  felt  bad  about  the  matter. 
See  pages  100-106. 

[II] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  I  saw  in  the  paper  where  there  was  a 

fire  over  Smith's  store. 
Right:     I  saw  in  the  paper  that  there  was  a  fire 

over  Smith's  store. 

Never  Say: 

I  saw  in  the  paper  where 
I  saw  in  the  magazine  where 
I  saw  in  an  article  where 

Say: 

I  saw  in  the  paper  that 
I  saw  in  the  magazine  that 
I  saw  in  an  article  that 

Wrong:  My  sister  is  taller  than  me. 
Right:     My  sister  is  taller  than  I. 

Wrong:  I  am  older  than  him. 
Right:     I  am  older  than  he. 

Wrong:  John  is  stouter  than  her. 
Right:     John  is  stouter  than  she. 

Wrong:  They  are  more  advanced  in  their  work 

than  us. 
Right:     They  are  more  advanced  in  their  work 

than  we. 

Wrong:  The  teacher  learned  us  a  new  poem. 
Right:     The  teacher  taught  us  a  new  poem. 
See  pages  159-160. 

[12] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  I  didn't  do  that;  lie  done  it. 
Right:     I  didn't  do  that;  he  did  it. 
See  page  177. 

Wrong:  They  said  that  it  was  alright  for  me  to 

do  it. 
Right:     They  said  that  it  was  all  right  for  me  to 

do  it. 
See  page  210. 

Wrong:  If  I  was  you  I'd  go. 
Right:     If  I  were  you  I'd  go. 
See  pages  172  and  173. 

Wrong:  The  water  is  froze. 
Right:     The  water  is  frozen. 

Wrong:  Is  that   a    boughten    dress    or    did   you 

make  it? 
Right:     Did  you  buy  that  dress  or  did  you  make 

it.^ 
Right:     Is  that  a  ready-made  dress  or  did  you 

make  it? 

Wrong:  My  sister — she  died  a  year  ago. 
Right:     My  sister  died  a  year  ago. 

Wrong:  My  teacher — she  says  that  she  likes  his- 
tory. 
Right:     My  teacher  says  that  she  likes  history. 

[13] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  Her  father  died  away  a  month  ago. 
Right:     Her  father  died  a  month  ago. 

Wrong:  He  was  droivnded. 

Right:     He  was  drowned.    (Rhymes  with  round.) 
See  page  177. 

Wrong:  Him  and  I  went. 
Right:     He  and  I  went. 

Wrong:  Between  you  and  Z,  I  think  he  falsified. 
Right:     Between  you  and  me,  I  think  he  falsified. 
See  pages  165-168. 

Wrong:  I  didn't  say  nothing. 
Right:     I  didn't  say  anything. 
See  pages  158  and  159. 

Wrong:  She  is  a  real  nice  person. 
Right:     She  is  a  very  nice  person. 

Wrong:  What    is    the    pronownciation    of    this 

word.'^ 
Right:     What  is  the  pronunciation  of  this  word? 
See  page  15^. 

Wrong:  Either  mother  or  father  are  sure  to  come. 
Right:     Either  mother  or  father  is  sure  to  come. 
See  page  174. 

[14] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  My  limbs  ache.     (The  speaker  does  not 

mean  to  include  arms.) 
Right:     My  legs  ache. 

My  limhs  ache   .    .    .   means  arms  and 

legs  ache.     (Limbs  are  arms  and  legs.) 

Wrong:  He  don't  sleep  well. 
Right:     He  doesn't  sleep  well. 
See  pages  343  and  344. 

Wrong:  Mother,  can  I  go  swimming  today? 
Right:     Mother,  may  I  go  swimming  today .^ 
May  is  used  in  asking  permission. 
Can  is  not  used  in  asking  permission. 
See  pages  152-155. 

Wrong:  I  sure  did. 
Right:     I  certainly  did. 
See  ****,  pages  6  and  7. 

I  sure  did  is  a  vulgarism. 
I  surely  did  is  grammatically  correct  but 
I  certainly  did  is  a  better  expression. 

Right:     Drive  slow.  or  Drive  slowly. 

See  pages  100-106. 

Drive  slowly  is  more  generally  known  to  be 
correct,  but  both  are  right.  The  dictionary 
will  decide  this  for  you  if  you  understand  how 
to  obtain  the  information.   If  you  do  not  under- 

[15] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

stand  the  dictionary,  take  the  word  of  this  book 
that  both  of  these  expressions  are  right. 

Wrong:  Did  you  get  an  invite  to  the  wedding? 
Right:     Did  you  get  an  invitation  to  the  wed- 
ding? 
Never  use  the  word  invite  for  the  invitation 
itself. 

Use  the  word  invite  in  this  way: 
I  shall  invite  him. 
Did  he  invite  you? 
I  shall  invite  him  means  I  shall  ask  him  to  come. 
Invite  is  correct  when  the  word  ask  can  be 
substituted. 

Inelegant:  I  am  sweating.     I  am  sweaty. 
Correct:      I  am  perspiring.    Notice  per;  not  pres. 

(To  say  pres-piring  is  a  mistake  common  to 
the  illiterate.) 

See  pages  216  and  217. 

If  you  wish  to  be  considered  polished,  you  will 
not  use  these  expressions  at  all,  unless  you  are 
talking  to  your  physician.  For  two  dollars  he 
is  willing  to  listen  to  your  difficulty. 

Wrong:  Will  I  open  the  window? 
Right:     Shall  I  open  the  window? 

Never  say.  Will  I? 

See  page  145,  "Sentence  2,  group  A." 

[16] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  Would  you  like  to  go? 
Right:     Should  you  like  to  go? 

See  pages  149-151. 

Reasoning  from  shall  and  loill,  one  would  say, 
I  shall  like  to  go. 

Therefore : 

I  should  like  to  go. 

In  a  question  use  the  word  (shall  or  vnll, 
should  or  would)  that  you  expect  in  the  reply. 
The  reply  in  this  sentence  will  be  /  should. 

Wrong:  There  were  two  people  on  the  stage. 
Right:     There  were  two  persons  on  the  stage. 
See  page  221. 
Use  people  when  you  mean  a  mass. 

The  young  people  of  the  church. 
The  people  of  the  United  States. 

Poor:  May  I  borrow  your  pencil?     Sure! 
Good:  May   I   borrow   your   pencil?     Certainly. 
(or)  Yes,  of  course,     (or)  With  pleasure. 

Poor:  I  sure  am  tired. 
Good:  I  certainly  am  tired. 

Poor:  Will  you  call  her  to  the  telephone?  Surely. 
Good:  Will  you  call  her  to  the  telephone?     Cer- 
tainly, (or)  Yes,  I  will. 

Poor:  Why  sure!  (as  an  expression  of  agreement) 
Good:  Why    certainly,    (or)    Of    course,    (or)    I 
think  so  too. 

[17] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Do  not  say  sure  when  you  mean  yes  or  certainly. 
Correct   uses  of  sure  and  surely  are   shown 
below : 

Are  you  sure  that  John  is  out  of  town? 
I  shall  surely  be  there. 
See  ****,  pages  6  and  7. 

Wrong:  I  says,  "Well,  you  just  try  it." 
Right:     I  said,  "Well,  you  just  try  it." 

Wrong:  I  says  to  myself 
Right:     I  said  to  myself 

Wrong:  Says  I 
Right:     Said  I 

Wrong:  I  says,  says  I,  "Bill  must  not  do  that." 
Right:     I  said,  "Bill  must  not  do  that." 

Never  say,  I  says. 

Never  say.  Says  I. 

He  says,  she  says,  are  correct. 

Wrong:  I  seen  you  at  the  theater  last  evening. 
Right:     I  saw  you  at  the  theater  last  evening. 
See  page  178. 

Wrong:  I  only  had  five  cents. 
Right:     I  had  only  five  cents. 
See  pages  188  and  189. 

[I8] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  Aren't  If 
Right:     Am  I  not? 

Wrong:  She  sat  between  he  and  /. 
Right:     She  sat  between  him  and  me. 
See  pages  165-168. 

Wrong:  It  was  him. 
Right:     It  was  he. 
See  pages  94-100. 

Wrong:  Who  do  you  want? 
Right:     Whom  do  you  want? 
See  Exception,  pages  76-84. 

Wrong:  Who  did  you  speak  to? 
Right:     Whom  did  you  speak  to? 
Right:     To  whom  did  you  speak? 
See  Exception,  pages  76-84. 

Wrong:  How  are  you?     Nicely,  thank  you. 
Right:     How  are  you?     Well,  I  thank  you. 

Wrong:  Did  you  rense  the  clothes? 
Wrong:  Did  you  wrench  the  clothes? 
Right:     Did  you  rinse  the  clothes? 
See  page  257. 

[19] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  I  went  to  a  friend  of  miners  house. 
Right:     I  went  to  the  house  of  a  friend  of  mine. 
There  is  no  such  word  as  mine's. 

Wrong:  One  of  the  hoys'  mothers  told  me  about 

the  entertainment. 
Right:     The  mother  of  one  of  the  boys  told  me 

about  the  entertainment. 
See  pages  51  and  52. 

Wrong:  Leave  me  off  at  Main  Street. 
Right:     Let  me  off  at  Main  Street. 
See  pages  191-193. 

Wrong:  Try  to  always  avoid  bad  company. 
Right:     Always  try  to  avoid  bad  company. 
See  pages  189-191. 

Wrong:  I  should  have  liked  to  have  gone. 
Right:     I  should  have  liked  to  go. 

Wrong:  I  seldom  ever  go. 
Right:     I  seldom  go. 

Wrong:  I  rarely  ever  go  to  theater. 
Right:     I  rarely  go  to  theater. 

Wrong:  The  book  was  real  interesting. 
Right:     The  book  was  very  interesting,  or  The 
book  was  interesting. 

[20] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  The    reason    that    I    was    absent    was 

because  I  was  ill. 
Right:     The  reason  that  I  was  absent  was  thai  I 

was  ill. 
Right:     The  reason  for  my  absence  was  that  I 

was  iU. 
Right:     The  reason  for  my  absence  was  illness. 
Never  say:  The  reason  was  because. 
If  you  are  asked  why  you  were  absent,  say: 

I  was  absent  because  I  was  ill. 
K  you  are  asked  the  reason  for  your  absence, 
say: 

The  reason  was  that  I  was  ill. 
Because  answers  the  question,  "Why?" 

Wrong:  I  remember  of  seeing  you  at  the  bazaar. 
Right:     I  remember  seeing  you  at  the  bazaar. 
Never  say:  Remember  of. 

Wrong:  They  had  redecorated  the  sleeper,  diner, 

and  smoker. 
Right:     They  had  redecorated  the  sleeping  car, 

the  dining  car,  and  the  smoking  car. 
Right:  They  had  redecorated  the  sleeping,  dining, 

and  smoking  cars. 

Wrong:  Have  you  anybody^ s  else  bundles  besides 

your  own? 
Right:     Have  you  anybody  else's  bundles  besides 

your  own  ? 

[21] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  This  is  somebody* s  else  umbrella. 
Right:     This  is  somebody  else's  umbrella. 

Wrong:  Everybody's  else  home  is  more  attractive 

than  ours. 
Right:     Everybody  else's  home  is  more  attractive 

than  ours. 
See  page  229. 

Wrong:  There's  a  fence  between  every  house. 
Right:     The  houses  are  separated  by  fences. 

See  pages  162,  163,  174,  208. 

Every  house  means  every  single  house.  Every 
is  treated  as  one.  A  fence  cannot  be  between  one 
house;  between  implies  two. 

Wrong:  He  does  his  work  good. 
Right:     He  does  his  work  well. 
Right:     He  is  a  good  worker. 

Wrong:  Them  apples  make  good  pies. 
Right:     These  apples  make  good  pies,    or  Those 
apples  make  good  pies. 

Never  put  them  before  the  name  of  a  thing 
(apples). 

See  page  119. 

W^ong:  Are  those  books  yournf 
Right:     Are  those  books  yours? 
See  page  53. 

[22] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Some  mistakes  are  worse  than  others  in  their 
effect  upon  your  social  standing.  You  might 
say  would  for  should,  or  should  for  would,  and  not 
be  considered  ignorant;  but  to  say  yourn  for  yours 
is  fatal  to  your  social  and  business  standing. 
Beware ! 

Wrong:  Was  you  at  the  meeting  yesterday.? 
Right:     Were  you  at  the  meeting  yesterday? 

Never  say  Was  you?  This  is  as  bad  a  mistake 
as  yourn  for  yours. 

Wrong:  She's  a  widow  woman.     (A  widow  is  a 

woman.) 
Right:     She's  a  widow. 
Right:     He's  a  widower.     (A  widower  is  a  man.) 

Wrong:  I  canH  hardly  see;  it  is  so  dark. 
Right:     I  can  hardly  see;  it  is  so  dark. 

See  pages  158  and  159. 

This  is  easy  to  understand  if  you  think  of  the 
word  hardly  as  meaning  with  difficulty.  The 
sentence  means  that  I  can  see  only  with  diffi- 
culty. It  does  not  mean  that  I  cannot  see  with 
difficulty. 

Wrong:  He's   a    Christian    Science.     This   is   a 

common  mistake. 
Right:     He's  a  Christian  Scientist.     He  believes 

in  Christian  Science. 

[23] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  Don't  reopen  that   subject  again.     Re 

means  again. 
Right:     Don't    reopen    that    subject.     Reopen 

means  to  open  again. 

Wrong:  The  soldiers  are  having  their  sitting -up 

drill. 
Right:     The  soldiers  are  having  their  setting-up 
drill. 
See  pages  72  and  73. 

Here  setting  does  not  mean  sitting.  Setting-up 
has  the  meaning  of  putting  into  good  condition. 
A  bit  of  fresh  air  sets  one  up  in  great  shape. 

Wrong:  I  ain't  got  no  time. 
Right:     I  have  no  time. 
Right:     I  haven't  any  time. 
Right:     I  haven't  time. 

See  pages  158,  159,  236,  343. 

Wrong:  Willie  had  a  egg  for  breakfast. 
Right:     Willie  had  an  egg  for  breakfast. 
See  pages  231  and  232. 

Wrong:  One  of  the  teachers  are  here. 

Wrong:  One  of  the  teachers  have  come. 

Right:     One  of  the  teachers  is  here.     One  is  here. 

Disregard  the  other  words. 
Right:     One  of  the  teachers  has  come.     One  has 

come.     Disregard  the  other  words. 
See  page  174. 

[24] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  Would  you  like  to  have  John  and  I  call 

for  you? 
Right:     Should  you  like  to  have  John  and  me  call 

for  you? 
See  pages  110-112,  149-151. 

Wrong:  This  material  is  different  than  that. 
Wrong:  This  material  is  different  to  that. 
Right:     This  material  is  different  from  that. 

Always  say  different  from. 

See  pages  220  and  221. 

Wrong:  You  hadn't  ou^ght  to  do  that. 
Right:     You  ought  not  to  do  that. 
Never  use  had  before  ought. 

Wrong:  He  drunk  a  glass  of  milk. 
Right:     He  drank  a  glass  of  milk. 

Use  drunk  with  has,  have,  had. 

See  page  177. 

Wrong:  He  has  drank  a  glass  of  milk. 
Right:     He  has  drunk  a  glass  of  milk. 

Do  not  use  has,  have,  had  with  drank. 

See  page  177. 

Inelegant:  Mary  dove  from  the  pier. 
Better:        Mary  dived  from  the  pier. 
See  page  177. 

[25] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  Kate  swum  a  mile. 
Right:     Kate  swam  a  mile. 

Use  swum  with  has,  have,  had. 

See  page  179. 

Wrong:  I  begun  the  dress  yesterday. 
Right:     I  fe^grari  the  dress  yesterday. 

Use  begun  "\;\'ith  /las,  /fare,  had. 

See  page  176. 

Wrong:  We  n/n  over  to  see  John  last  evening. 
Right:     We  ran  over  to  see  John  last  evening. 

Use  run  with  has,  have,  had. 

See  page  178 — column  3. 

Wrong:  He  come  over  to  see  us  last  evening. 
Right:     He  came  over  to  see  us  last  evening. 

Use  come  with  has,  have,  had. 

See  page  177 — column  3. 

Wrong:  I  not  only  saw  James  but  I  spoke  to  him. 
Right:     I  not  only  saw  James  but  I  aZso  spoke  to 

him. 
Right:     I  no^  only  saw  James  but  I  spoke  to 
him  as  well. 
Not  only  should  be  followed  by  but  also  or 
as  well. 

See  pages  155-157. 

[26] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Inelegant:  John  lit  the  lamp. 
Better:        John  lighted  the  lamp. 
See  page  178. 

Inelegant:  I  dreamt  all  night  long. 
Better:        I  dreamed  all  night  long. 
See  page  177. 

Common:   I  went  down  town,  see,  and  then  it  was 

too  late  to  go  to  the  meeting. 
Say:  I  went  down  town  and  then  it  was 

too  late  to  go  to  the  meeting. 
Do  not  unnecessarily  introduce  see. 
See  ***,  pages  6  and  7. 

*  Wrong:  I  am  just  after  going  to  the  store. 
Right:     I  have  just  been  to  the  store. 
*  (This  is  provincial  and  incorrectly  expresses 
the    fact    that    the    speaker   has   been   to   the 
store.) 

Wrong:  I'd  rather  have  this  as  that. 
Right:     I'd  rather  have  this  than  that. 

Wrong:  The  book  is  laying  on  the  bed. 
Right:     The  book  is  lying  on  the  bed. 

Persons  and  also  things  lie  if  they  are  in  a 
reclining  or  recumbent  position. 

See  pages  62-69. 

[27] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  The  house  is  het  by  steam. 
Right:     The  house  is  heated  by  steam. 

Never  use  het. 

See  page  177. 

Wrong:  They  gave  it  to  him  free  gratis. 
Right:     They  gave  it  to  him  gratis. 
Better:    They  gave  it  to  him  free  of  charge. 

(Do  not  make  liberal  use  of  foreign  words. 
Gratis  is  Latin.) 

Wrong:  He  hurted  his  arm. 
Right:     He  hurt  his  arm. 
See  page  178. 

Wrong:  I  tended  him  five  dollars. 
Wrong:  I  loaned  him  five  dollars. 
Right:     I  lent  him  five  dollars. 
See  pages  178,  206,  207. 

Wrong:  The  government   broadcasted  the   mes- 
sage. 
Right:     The  government  broadcast  the  message. 
See  page  176. 

Wrong:  The  wound  bleeded  profusely. 
Right:     The  wound  6Z^ci  profusely. 
See  page  176. 

Wrong:  He  is  home. 
Right:     He  is  at  home. 

[28] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  He  fell  off  of  the  ladder. 
Right:     He  fell  off  the  ladder. 
See  page  160. 

Wrong:  He   attackted  the   man   while   his   wife 

looked  on. 
Right:     He  attacked  (pronounced  attakt)  the  man 

while  his  wife  looked  on. 
See  pages  176  and  247. 

Wrong:  Kate  walked  acrosst  the  street. 
Right:     Kate  walked  across  the  street. 
See  page  246. 

Wrong:  This  here  is  not  the  kind  I  want. 
Right:     This  is  not  the  kind  I  want. 
See  page  120. 

Wrong:  This  here  one  is  mine. 
Right:     This  one  is  mine. 
See  page  120. 

TFron^:  This  here  boy  called  me  names. 
Right:     This  boy  called  me  names. 
See  page  120. 

Wrong:  Do  you  want  this  here  one? 
Right:     Do  you  want  this  one.'* 
See  page  120. 

[29] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  That  there  one  is  better. 
Right:     That  one  is  better. 
Never  say:  This  here  one. 
That  there  one. 
These  here  books. 
Those  there  books. 
Never,  never  say:  Them  there. 
See  page  120. 

Wrong:  Yourself  and  your  friend  are  invited  to 

come. 
Right:     You  and  your  friend  are  invited  to  come. 
See  pages  106-110. 

Wrong:  How  do  you  do.^^     I'm  well;  how^s  your- 

self? 
Right:     How  do  you  do?  Vm  well;  how  are  you? 
See  pages  106-110. 

Wrong:  Every  one  had  swum  but  /. 
Right:     Every  one  had  swum  but  me. 
See  pages  168-172. 

Wrong:  Yesterday  I  laid  on  the  couch. 
Right:     Yesterday  I  lay  on  the  couch. 
See  pages  62-69. 

Wrong:  What  do  you  think  of  him  speaking  to 
me  like  that.^^ 

[30] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Right:     What  do  you  think  of  his  speaking  to  me 
like  that? 
See  pages  55-61. 

Wrong:  Here  comes  the  boys. 
Right:     Here  come  the  boys. 

By  saying,  "  The  boys  come  here,"  the  reader 
will  see  that  comes  is  incorrect. 

See  pages  131-134. 

Wrong:  Are    there    any    good    apples    amongst 

them? 
Right:     Are  there  any  good  apples  among  them? 

Wrong:  You  stay  whilst  I  go. 
Right:     You  stay  while  I  go. 

Whilst  and  amongst  are  archaic.     (Find  the 
meaning  of  archaic  in  your  dictionary.) 

Poor:      She  has  been  a  typewriter  ever  since  the 

death  of  her  husband. 
Right:     She  has  been  a  typist  ever  since  the  death 

of  her  husband. 

Wrong:  Thank  you,  this  is  plenty  good  enough. 
Right:     Thank  you,  this  is  good  enough. 

Wrong:  This  is  the  best  of  the  two. 
Right:     This  is  the  better  of  the  two. 
See  pages  122-127. 

[31] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  There  was  a  man  and  a  woman  sitting 

on  the  veranda. 
Right:     There  were  a  man  and  a  woman  sitting 
on  the  veranda. 
(A  man  and  a  woman  were  sitting  there 
on  the  veranda.) 
See  pages  131-134. 

Colloquial:  Hens  set. 

Better:  Hens  sit. 

See  pages  69-73. 

Colloquial:  The  dress  sets  well. 
Better:  The  dress  sits  well. 

See  pages  69-73. 

Wrong:  He  sits  in  hack  of  me. 
Right:     He  sits  behind  me. 

Wrong:  He  had  nowheres  to  go. 
Right:     He  had  nowhere  to  go. 

Wrong:  My  hairs  are  curly.     They  need  a  sham- 
poo. 
Right:     My  /laiV  is  curly.     It  needs  a  shampoo. 

Wrong:  The  coaZ^  have  come.  They  are  being 
carried  in. 

Right:  The  coaZ  has  come.  It  is  being  car- 
ried in. 

[32] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  The  United  States  are  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Canada. 

Right:     The  United  States  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Canada. 

Right:     It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean. 
United  States  is  the  name  of  one  country.     We 

speak  of  United  States  as  it;  not  they.     We  use  is; 

not  are. 

Wrong:  When  I  first  began  clerking  I  yoost  to 

tire  easily. 
Right:     When    I    began    clerking    I    used    (pro- 
nounced yoozd)  to  tire  easily. 
See  page  259. 

CARELESS  SPEECH 

Wrong 

1.  Please  gimme  that  pencil. 

2.  Ayah,  I  will, 

3.  Did  ju  go  to  the  concert? 

4.  Lemme  see  the  program. 

5.  Her  edjucation  has  been  neglected. 

6.  Should  ju  like  to  go  to  Europe.'^ 

7.  I  was  lookin'  at  the  sky. 

8.  The  boy  kep'  the  secret. 

9.  Didde? 

[33] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

10.  Give  'er  the  money. 

11.  Give  'im  the  money. 

12.  Have  you  seen  thum? 

13.  Envirament  has  much  to  do  with  character. 

14.  The  street  is  rapidly  deteriating. 

15.  We  were  goin'  along  the  street. 

16.  We  were  goeen  along  the  street. 
*17.  I  laydown  after  the  doctor  left. 

18.  Mebbe  I'll  go. 

19.  What  is  the  heighth  of  the  building? 

20.  Open  the  winda,  please. 

21.  Lookut;  this  is  fading. 

22.  There  is  a  young  fella  at  the  box  office. 

Right 

1.  Please  give  me  that  pencil. 

2.  Yes,  I  will. 

3.  Did  you  go  to  the  concert.'* 

4.  Let  me  see  the  program. 

5.  Her  ed-u-ca-tion  has  been  neglected. 

6.  Should  you  like  to  go  to  Europe? 

7.  I  was  looking  at  the  sky. 

8.  The  boy  kept  the  secret. 

9.  Did  he? 

10.  Give  her  the  money. 

11.  Give  him  the  money. 

12.  Have  you  seen  them? 

13.  Environment  has  much  to  do  with  charac- 

ter. 

[34] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

14.  The  street  is  rapidly  deteriorating. 

15.  We  were  going  along  the  street. 

16.  We  were  going  along  the  street. 

17.  I  lay  dc  vvn  after  the  doctor  left. 

18.  Maybe  I'll  go. 

19.  What  is  the  height  of  the  building? 

20.  Open  the  window,  please. 

21.  Look;  this  is  fading. 

22.  There  is  a  young  fellow  at  the  box  office. 

In  sentence  13  pronounce  the  second  n  in 
environr..ent. 

In  sentence  14  pronounce  the  syllable  or. 

*In  sentence  17  separate  lay  from  down  when 
speaking,  so  that  the  two  words  together  do  not 
sound  like  laid  down. 

In  sentence  19  height  rhymes  with  might. 

In  the  "  wrong "  sentences,  there  is  not  a 
mistake  in  grammar.  This  type  of  speech  in- 
dicates slovenliness.  The  mistakes  are  those  of 
both  educated  and  uneducated  persons.  If 
you  are  guilty  of  any  of  these  errors  be«in  to 
eliminate  them  now. 

ONE  THING— MORE  THAN  ONE  THING 

To  most  words  that  mean  one  thing  add  s 
to  indicate  more  than  one  thing.  The  words  in 
column  A  mean  one  thing.  In  column  B,  s  has 
*>een  added  to  indicate  more  than  one  thing. 

lasl 


Pitfalls  in  English 


A 

B 

A 

B 

pencil 

pencils 

machine 

machines 

book 

books 

hat 

hats 

chair 

chairs 

ribbon 

ribbons 

dog 

dogs 

nail 

nails 

house 

houses 

cat 

cats 

bed 

beds 

finger 

fingers 

bat 

bats 

hook 

hooks 

dot 

dots 

shoe 

shoes 

pen 

pens 

date 

dates 

Sometimes  for  the  sake  of  euphony  (sound)  it  is 
necessary  to  add  es  instead  of  s.  You  can 
readily  see  that  s  does  not  unite  easily  with 
churchy  dress,  and  other  words  found  in  columns 
C.  If  the  word  ends  with  s,  x,  z,  ch,  sh,  add  es 
instead  of  s  to  indicate  more  than  one  (col- 
umns D). 


c 

D 

C 

D 

church 

churches 

dish 

dishes 

dress 

dresses 

wish 

wishes 

match 

matches 

tax 

taxes 

sash 

sashes 

witch 

witches 

box 

boxes 

adz 

adzes 

Words  ending  in  y  need  attention.     There  are 
two  groups. 

1     Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  any  one 
of  the  five  letters,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u. 

[36] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


To  such  words,  add  only  s  to  indicate  more 

than  one. 
Boy  ends  with  y  preceded  by  o.    Therefore, 

boys. 
2     Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  any  other 

letter  than  a,  e,  z,  o,  u. 
In  such  words  we  change  y  to  ies. 
Lady  ends  with  y  preceded  by  d  (not  a,  Cy  i, 

o,  u).     Therefore,  ladies. 

The  following  end  with  y  preceded  by  various 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  See  if  you  understand 
why  the  s  is  added  to  some  words  and  why  the  y 
is  changed  to  ies  in  others. 


boy 

boys 

attorney 

attorneys 

monkey 

monkeys 

remedy 

remedies 

lady 

ladies 

key 

keys 

baby 

babies 

toy 

toys 

army 

armies 

bay 

bays 

turkey 

turkeys 

play 

plays 

essay 

essays 

ray 

rays 

story 

stories 

glory 

glories 

When  a  word  ends  with/  sometimes  s  is  added; 
sometimes  the  /  is  changed  to  ves. 
To  the  group  below,  s  is  added. 


hoof    hoofs 
cliff     cliffs 
clef     clefs 


roof  roofs 
safe  safes 
chief    chiefs 

[37] 


proof  proofs 
scarf  scarfs 
chef       chefs 


Pitfalls  in  English 

In  the  following,  the  /  is  changed  to  ves. 

thief     thieves      loaf        loaves        half     halves 
sheaf    sheaves     wharf     wharves     calf     calves 

When  a  word  ends  with  o  we  nearly  always  add 
only  s.     To  a  few  we  add  es. 
To  the  following,  s  is  added. 

piano  pianos  alto  altos 

solo  solos  dynamo         dynamos 

lasso  lassos  folio  folios 


To  the  following,  es 

»«  added. 

potato          potatoes 

hero 

heroes 

tomato         tomatoes 

echo 

echoes 

negro            negroes 

veto 

vetoes 

man 

men 

ox 

oxen 

foot 

feet 

mouse 

mice 

Memorize  the  following  for  which  there  is  no 
definite  rule: 

child  children 

woman  women 

tooth  teeth 

goose  geese 

Some  words  are  the  same  in  both  the  form 
meaning  one  and  the  form  which  means  more 
than  one. 

sheep  sheep  cannon         cannon 

deer  deer  trout  trout 

Japanese      Japanese         Portuguese  Portuguese 

[38] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

These  are  correct: 

I  killed  a  sheep. 

He  killed  three  sheep. 

The  cannon  was  imperfect. 

Three  cannon  were  purchased. 

{Cannons  is  also  correct.) 
Two  Japanese  were  sit- 
ting on  the  porch. 

Some  words  seem  always  to  mean  more  than 
one.     Chief  among  these  are: 

spectacles     scissors     trousers     corsets     shears 

Such  words  are  used  with  are,  were,  have  been; 
not  with  isy  was,  has  been. 

The  spectacles  are  on  the  desk. 
The  scissors  are  not  sharp. 
Here  are  his  trousers. 
The  corsets  were  made  of  silk. 
The  shears  have  been  sharpened. 

Although  the  words  news,  politics,  mathematics, 
physicSy  athletics,  and  some  others  end  with  s, 
they  require  the  words  is,  was,  has  been,  etc. 
The  news  was  interesting. 
Politics  is  a  subject  in  which 

all  should  be  interested. 
Mathematics  was  my  hardest 
subject. 

[39J 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Physics  was  not  taught  in  our 

school. 
Athletics  is  a  part  of  the  school 

curriculum. 

For  the  use  of  such  words  as  group,  crowd,  fam- 
ily, committee,  hoard,  crew,  flock,  multitude,  club, 
couple,  society,  fleet,  tribe,  band,  see  pages  129-131, 
under  Troublesome  Combinations, 

For  the  form  which  means  more  than  one  let- 
ter, figure,  or  sign,  see  page  342. 

Memorize  the  following  unusual  forms: 

man-of-war  men-of-war 

mother-in-law  mothers-in-law 

brother-in-law  brothers-in-law 

Ejiight  Templar  Kiiights  Templars 

hanger-on  hangers-on 

commander  in  chief  commanders  in  chief 

IMPORTANT:  In  every  reputable  dictionary 
the  form  which  means  more  than  one  is  given. 
If  you  are  ever  in  doubt,  do  not  guess  how  to 
write  this  form.  Consult  your  dictionary.  See 
pages  234-237. 

EXERCISE  I 

Write  the  forms  which  mean  more  than  one, 
of  the  following  words.  Compare  your  answers 
with  those  on  page  356,  exercise  1. 

[40] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


joy 

ship 

table 

rat 

baby- 

piano 

woman 

lady 

motto 

church 

ox 

tomb 

father-in-law 

fox 

scarf 

sheep 

knife 

fish 

leaf 

nail 

money 

POSSESSIVES 

You  will  now  learn  what  possessive  means  and 
how,  when,  and  where  to  use  and  not  to  use  the 
apostrophe  to  form  the  possessive.  Though  the  ex- 
planation is  long,  you  will  find  it  clarifying  and  you 
will  have  no  further  trouble  with  the  apostrophe. 

Most  persons  think  of  the  word  possessive  in 
connection  with  correct  speech  as  indicating 
ownership.  Limiting  the  word  to  this  meaning 
causes  many  persons  to  omit  the  apostrophe  in 
expressions  like: 

'  a  a  year*s  experience 

b  the  season's  greeting 

c  SL  month's  hard  word 

d  a  day's  pay 

e  a  year's  salary 

/  five  minutes'  time 

g  for  pity's  sake 

h  an  hour's  time 

i  five  hours'  time 

j  two  dollars'  worth 

[41] 


Group  1 


Pitfalls  in  English 


It  is  clear  that  the  year  did  not  possess  the 
experience;  the  season  did  not  own  the  greet- 
ing; the  month  did  not  own  the  work;  the  day- 
did  not  own  the  pay;  the  year  did  not  own  the 
salary;  minutes  did  not  own  the  time.  Still 
the  italicized  words  require  the  apostrophe.  The 
apostrophe  and  s  or  the  apostrophe  alone  (f,  i,  j) 
may  be  considered  to  mean  of  a,  of  an,  of  the. 
When,  instead  of  saying  the  experience  of  a 
year,  we  say  a  year's  experience,  we  consider 
yearns  as  a  possessive  and  we  exercise  care  to 
put  the  apostrophe  in  the  correct  place. 

The  preceding  expressions  mean- 


a  an  experience  of  a  year 

h  the  greeting  of  the  season 

c  the  hard  work  of  a  month 

d  the  pay  of  a  day 

e  the  salary  of  a  year 

/  the  time  of  five  minutes 

g  for  the  sake  of  pity 

h  the  time  of  an  hour 

i  the  time  of  five  hours 

j  the  worth  of  two  dollars 


Group  2 


In  carefully  studying  the  rule  for  the  posses- 
sive form,  you  will  see  why  the  apostrophe  is 
placed  after  the  s  in  minutes  (/—Group  1),  in 
hours  {i — Group  1),  and  in  dollars  (j — Group  1). 

[42] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Notice  that  there  is  no  apostrophe  in  expressions 
/,  i,  and  j — Group  2. 

The  apostrophe  appears  only  in  written  com- 
munications. It  is  important  that  this  little 
character  be  placed  in  the  correct  spot  so  that 
one  may  not  be  judged  as  ignorant.  It  is  only 
the  illiterate  who  stick  the  apostrophe  any 
place  without  reason,  or  omit  it  when  it  is 
required.  It  is  such  a  simple  trick  to  grasp 
that  there  is  no  excuse  for  not  making  the  effort 
to  understand  it. 

Here's  the  trick; 

PART  I 
*If  you  are  writing  about  a  word  that  means 
one  thing  and  you  wish  to  indicate  ^possession, 
owner  ship  y  of  a,  of  an,  of  the,  add  an  apostrophe 
and  s  regardless  of  the  last  letter  of  the  word. 

a  A  fox  owns  a  tail 

Possessive  form  would  be     fox's  tail 
b  An  ox  owns  a  head 

Possessive  form  would  be     ox's  head 
c  A  wolf  owns  a  leg 

Possessive  form  would  be     wolf's  leg 
d  The  howl  of  the  wolf 

Possessive  form  would  be         wolf's  howl 
e  Mr.  Rogers  owns  a  home 

Possessive  form  would  be     !Mr.  Rogers's 

home 

[43] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

/  The  profits  of  one  year 

Possessive  form  would  be    one  year's  prof- 
its 

Notice  that  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Rogers 
ends  with  5,  an  apostrophe  and  another  s  are 
added.  Rogers's  is  the  recent  form.  There  are 
a  few  exceptions :  Jesus',  Croesus',  Rogers'  was 
once  in  repute.  (This  may  seem  a  small  matter 
but  business  men  and  women  should  aim  to  be 
as  stylish  in  English  as  they  are  in  dress.) 

*Reiteration :  Read  the  paragraph  marked 
with  an  asterisk  (*).  Study  it  and  know  it 
thoroughly  before  attacking  the  second  part  of 
this  rule. 

Note:  Rogers's  is  pronounced  Roger s-es, 

PART  n 

To  write  the  possessive  form  of  a  word  that 
means  more  than  one  thing: 

If  the  word  that  means  more  than  one  thing 
ends  with  s,  add  only  an  apostrophe. 

If  the  word  that  means  more  than  one  thing 
does  not  end  with  s,  add  an  apostrophe  and  s. 

Suppose  you  wish  to  write: 

**The  women's  hats  were  trimmed  with  ex- 
quisite flowers. 

You  must  not  write  The  womens  and  then 

[441 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

observe  that  womens  ends  with  s;  for  you  will 
erroneously  add  an  apostrophe  and  you  will 
have  the  following: 

Wrong:  The  womens'  hats  were  trimmed  with 
exquisite  flowers. 

This  is  the  way: 

Write  the  word  The.  Then  write  the  word 
that  means  more  than  one  woman.  You  now 
have  written  The  women  and  you  see  that  women 
does  not  end  with  s.  Therefore  you  add  an 
apostrophe  and  s  and,  finishing  the  sentence,  you 
will  see  that  it  is  like  the  one  marked  with  two 
asterisks  (**). 

Suppose  you  wish  to  write: 

***The  boys'  dormitory  was  damaged  by  fire. 

You  write  your  first  word  The.  Then  you 
think  how  to  spell  the  word  that  means  more 
than  one  boy.  It  is  boys.  It  ends  with  s.  You 
add  only  an  apostrophe.  Finish  the  sentence 
and  compare  it  with  the  one  marked  with  three 
asterisks  (***). 

Remember:  If  the  word  means  one  thing,  we  do 
not  consider  its  last  letter. 
If  it  does  not  end  with  «,  we  add  an 

apostrophe  and  s. 
If  it  does  end  with  5,  we  do  the  same 
thing. 

[45] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

But:  When  the  word  means  more  than 

one  thing  and  ends  with  5,  we  add 
only  an  apostrophe;  when  it  does 
not  end  with  s,  we  add  both  the 
apostrophe  and  s. 

Caution:  Not  every  word  that  ends  with  s  is 
in  the  possessive  form;  therefore 
not  every  word  that  ends  with  s 
requires  an  apostrophe. 

The  soldiers'  guns  could  be  heard  miles  away. 
Possessive  form. 

The  soldiers  marched  to  the  fort.  Not  pos- 
sessive. 

He  owes  me  three  months*  salary.  Possessive 
form. 

He  left  three  months  ago.     Not  possessive. 

Some  writers  incorrectly  put  an  additional 
apostrophe  in  the  word  following  the  possessive. 

Wrong:  The  boys'  hats'  were  stolen. 
Right:     The  boys'  hats  were  stolen. 

Caution: 

Suppose  you  wish  to  write  the  possessive  form 
of  the  word  wolves.  You  write  the  word  wolves 
and  observing  that  it  ends  in  s,  you  know  that 
you  must  add  an  apostrophe.  In  adding  it  you 
incorrectly  place  it  between  the  e  and  the  s. 
That  is  not  adding. 

[46] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Adding  means  to  place  after. 

Wrong:  wolve's 
Right:     wolves' 

Wrong:  ladle's 
Right:     ladies' 

Observation  : 

Some  argue  that  the  following  is  incorrect: 
Men's,  women's,  and  children's  clothing  is  for 

sale  here. 

They  say  that  if  the  clothing  is  for  sale,  it  is 
not  yet  possessed  by  the  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren. They  therefore  omit  the  apostrophes. 
The  fact  that  the  writer  may  question,  "Whose 
clothing.^"  and  answer,  '* Men's,  women's,  and 
children's  clothing,"  indicates  that  the  words 
answering  the  question  "  Whose  .^"  require 
apostrophes. 

STUDY  THE  FOLLOWING 

1.  The  children's  teacher  is  to  call  this  after- 
noon. (Reasoning)  More  than  one  child 
is  meant.  The  word  is  children.  It  does 
not  end  with  s.  Add  both  the  apostrophe 
and  s.  children's.  (Do  not  say  to  your- 
self that  the  apostrophe  comes  before  the  s. 
Say  that  you  added  an  apostrophe  and  «.) 

[47] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

2.  Ladies'   wearing  apparel  is  for  sale  here. 

(Reasoning)  More  than  one  lady  is 
meant.  The  word  is  ladies.  Ladies  ends 
with  s.     Add  only  an  apostrophe,  ladies* 

3.  The  man's  butler  speaks  French.     (Reason- 

ing) One  man  is  meant.  The  word  is 
man.  Disregard  the  end  of  the  word. 
Add  an  apostrophe  and  s.     man*s 

4.  A  minute's  time  wasted  is  never  regained. 

(Reasoning)  A  minute's  time  means  the 
time  of  one  minute.  The  word  is  minute. 
Disregard  the  end  of  the  word.  Add  an 
apostrophe  and  s.     minute's 

5.  Why   worry  .'^     It's  all  in  the  day's  work. 

(Reasoning)  The  first  apostrophe,  the 
one  in  the  word  ifsy  shows  that  the  letter 
i  has  been  omitted.  (Page  342)  It  does 
not  indicate  ownership,  possession,  of  a, 
of  an,  of  the.  The  second  apostrophe  is 
accounted  for  in  the  following  way:  work 
of  the  day.  Day  means  one  thing;  there- 
fore add  an  apostrophe  and  s.     day's 

6.  Many  years'  experience  has  taught  me  to 

keep  my  business  to  myself.  (Reason- 
ing) Many  years'  experience  means  the 
experience  of  many  years.  Years  means 
more  than  one  year.     Years  ends  with  s, 

[48] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Add  an  apostrophe,  years*  (Notice: 
Many  years'  experience  has  taught  me. 
Has  is  correct.     Have  would  be  incorrect.) 

7.  He  has  had  only  one  year's  training.     (Rea- 

soning) One  year  is  year.  Add  an  apos- 
trophe and  s.     year's 

8.  ^Ir.  Glass's  apartment  is  not  so  large  as  ours. 

(Reasoning)  The  name  of  one  man  is 
Mr.  Glass.  Disregard  the  end  of  the 
word.     Glass's 

9.  John's  position  is  a  difficult  one.     (Reason- 

ing) One  man,  John.  Disregard  the  end 
of  the  word.  Add  an  apostrophe  and  s, 
John's 

10.  Did  you  hear  of  Mr.  Rogers's  appointment  P 

(Reasoning)  This  man's  name  is  Rogers. 
Rogers  ends  with  s.  Disregard  the  fact 
as  long  as  the  word  means  only  one.  Add 
an  apostrophe  and  s,     Rogers's 

11.  Did  you  hear  of  Mr.  Roger's  appointment? 

(Reasoning)  This  man's  name  is  Roger. 
Add  an  apostrophe  and  s.     Roger's 

12.  The    boy    escaped    by    a    hair's    breadth. 

(Reasoning)  Breadth  of  a  hair.  One  hair^ 
Add  an  apostrophe  and  s.     hair's 

[49] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

13.  The  fox's  tail  is  bushy.     (Reasoning)  One 

fox.  Pay  no  attention  to  the  spelling 
because  we  are  speaking  of  only  one  fox. 
Add  an  apostrophe  and  s.    fox's 

14.  The  ox's  head  is  shaggy.     (Reasoning)  One 

ox.  Pay  no  attention  to  spelling.  Add 
an  apostrophe  and  s.  ox's  (Notice  that 
there  is  no  e  in  ox's.) 

15.  The  foxes'  tails  are  bushy.     (Reasoning) 

More  than  one  fox.  foxes  Foxes  ends 
with  s.     Add  an  apostrophe,    foxes' 

16.  The  oxen's  hoofs  are  clumsy.     (Reasoning) 

More  than  one  ox.  oxen  Oxen  does  not 
end  with  s.  Add  an  apostrophe  and  s. 
oxen's 

17.  The    deer's    body    is    exquisitely    graceful. 

(Reasoning)  One  deer,  deer  Add  an 
apostrophe  and  s.     deer's 

18.  The  deer's  bodies  are  graceful.     (Reasoning) 

More  than  one  deer,  deer  Deer  does  not 
end  with  s.  Add  an  apostrophe  and  s. 
deer's 

19.  The  horses  were  galloping  along  at  a  great 

rate.     (Reasoning)  Horses  is  not  in  the 

possessive   form   because   horses   do  not 

own  anything  in  this  sentence.  No 
apostrophe, 

[50] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

20.  Five  months  ago  I  came  to  this  country. 
(Reasoning)  Months  is  not  in  the  posses- 
sive form.  Months  do  not  own  ago.  We 
cannot  say  the  ago  of  five  months.  There- 
fore there  will  be  no  apostrophe  in  this 
sentence. 

If  you  thoroughly  understand  these  sentences, 
you  understand  possessive. 

Avoid  the  use  of  double  possessives. 

Poor:  My  daughter's  doctor's  wife  is  in  New  York. 
Good:  The  wife  of  my  daughter's  doctor  is  in  New 
York. 

Poor:  Mr,  Smith's  stenographer's  mother  is  an 

artist. 
Good:  The  mother  of  Mr.  Smith's  stenographer  is 

an  artist. 

AVOID  SUCH  EXPRESSIONS  AS  THE 
FOLLOWING: 

Poor:  I  went  to  the  Superintendent  of  the  Poor  s 

office. 
Good:  I  went  to  the  office  of  the  Superintendent  of 

the  Poor. 

Poor:  The  Superintendent  of  Education's  qffice  is 
in  the  Genesee  Building. 

Good:  The  offixie  of  the  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion is  in  the  Genesee  Building. 

[51] 

n.  OF  ILL  LIB. 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Poor:  One  of  the  men's  wives  was  hurt  in  the 

accident. 
Good:  The  wife  of  one  of  the  men  was  hurt  in  the 

accident. 

Poor:  One   of  the   children*s   mothers   called   to 

see  us. 
Good:  The  mother  of  one  of  the  children  called  to 

see  us. 

*Poor:   The  box's  cover  was  broken. 
Good:  The  cover  of  the  box  was  broken. 

*It  is  better  not  to  use  the  apostrophe  and  s 
or  the  apostrophe  alone  with  the  name  of  an 
inanimate  object  (box). 

IMPORTANT 

The  following  words  are  possessives,  but  are 
never  written  with  an  apostrophe: 

his,  hers,  its,  ours,  yours,  theirs 

The  word  its  is  sometimes  written  with  an  apos- 
trophe but  when  it  is,  it  is  not  used  as  a  posses- 
sive. Ifs  means  it  is.  The  i  has  been  omitted 
and  in  its  place,  an  apostrophe  has  been  inserted. 
{Contractions,  pages  342  and  343.) 

Study  the  following: 

The  baby's  eyes  are  blue  but  its  hair  is  black. 
"VMiose  hair?     Its  hair. 

[52] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Because  its  answers  the  question  whose  you 
will  know  that  it  is  in  the  possessive  form  and 
you  will  not  use  an  apostrophe. 

It*s  a  pleasant  day.     Here,  it's  is  not  a  posses- 
sive.    It   means  it  is.     The  apostrophe  shows 
that  a  letter  has  been  omitted. 
Read  carefully: 

Right:  The  marionette's  arm  was  broken  but  its 
dancing    continued,     (no     apostrophe 
in  its) 
Right:  Ifs  a  very  warm  day.     (apostrophe) 
Right:  These  books  are  theirs,     (no  apostrophe) 
Right:  I   thought   that   they   were   yours,     (no 

apostrophe) 
Right:  I  wish  that  they  were  ours,     (no  apos- 
trophe) 

K  you  do  not  wish  to  be  considered  ignorant, 
you  will  not  say: 

hisn  for  his,  hern  for  hers,  ourn  for  ours, 
yourn  for  yours,  theirn  for  theirs. 
Never  say  youze  for  you. 

Wrong:  Are  youze  going? 
Right:     Are  you  going? 

EXERCISE  2 

Some  of  the  following  require  an  apostrophe 
and  some  do  not.     Supply  the  correct  word  and 

[53] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

include  the  apostrophe,  if  necessary.  Consult 
page  356,  exercise  2,  after  you  have  finished,  to 
see  if  your  work  is  correct. 

Model: 

clothes  are  constantly  changing  in  style. 

(Woman) 

Solution: 

Women's  clothes  are  constantly  changing  in 
style. 

1.  He  is  taking  a  four course  in  a  techni- 

cal school,     (year) 

2.  The  table  was  set  by  the butler,   (man) 

3.  The  clerk  demanded  an  increase  of 

salary,     (tailor) 

4.  He  left  without  giving  me  a  warning. 

(moment) 

5.  Four ago  I  entered  the  school,    (year) 

6.  Mr.  Peters  stood  the  chair  upon legs. 

(it's  or  its) 

7.   clothes  are  severe  in  style,     (man) 

8.  We  went  to  ISIr. home  last  evening. 

(Rogers) 

9.  We  went  to  Mr.  home  last  evening. 

(Roger) 

10.  I  think  that  a  business  asset  to  speak 

correctly,     (it's  or  its) 

11.  The head  was  injured,     (deer) 

[54] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

12.  The heads  were  injured,     (deer) 

13.  These  books  are .  (theirs — theirs') 

14.  Mr. hat  blew  off.     (Church) 

15.   violin  is  damaged.     (Charles) 

16.  I  wished  him  the greeting,     (season) 

17.  IVIr.    Jones   just   left   the   coat   here. 

(child) 

18.  Mr. just  left  the  city.     (Jones) 

19.  I  want  five worth  of  service,     (dollar) 

20.  The vote  will  indicate  what  the  feeling 

towards  the  matter  is.     (people) 

ANOTHER  USE  OF  THE  POSSESSIVE 
FORM 

Review  from  page  41  to  this  point. 

One  indication  of  correct  speech  is  the  use  of 
the  possessive  form  before  certain  words  ending 
with  ing.  The  uneducated  and  even  many  edu- 
cated persons  make  the  mistake  shown  in  the 
following : 

(All  of  these  are  incorrect.) 

1.  What  do  you  think  of  him  going  on  the  stage? 

2.  Do  you  approve  of  John  becoming  an  actor? 

3.  Me  not  having  the  opportunity  to  go  to  school 

when  I  was  young  has  made  me  more  than 
eager  to  study  now. 

l55l 


Pitfalls  in  English 

4.  My  father  objected  to  me  going. 

5.  On  account  of  the  meeting  being  held  here 

we  can  not  use  the  room  for  dancing. 

6.  Do  you  remember  me  writing  to  you  about  it? 

7.  Do  you  recall  him  telling  us  about  it? 

8.  John  had  not  heard  of  us  planning  the  trip. 

Should  you  have  known  that  the  preceding 
sentences  were  incorrect  if  you  had  heard  your 
friends  uttering  these  remarks? 

ARGUMENT 


Sentence  1  does  not  mean  to  ask  what  you 
think  of  him. 

Sentence  2  does  not  mean  to  ask  if  you  approve 
of  John. 

Sentence  3  is  unpleasant  to  the  ear.  Only  in 
the  most  unusual  case  would  a 
sentence  begin  with  me,  him,  us, 
them. 

Sentence  4  does  not  mean  that  my  father 
objected  to  me. 

Sentence  5  It  is  not  on  account  of  the  meet- 
ing that  we  can  not  use  the 
room;  it  is  because  of  the  hold- 
ing of  the  meeting  in  that  par- 
ticular room. 

[56] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Sentence  6  The  intention  of  this  sentence  is 
not  to  ask  if  you  remember  me. 
Certainly  you  remember  me.  The 
question  is — Do  you  remember 
the  writing  done  by  me? 

Sentence  7  does  not  mean  to  ask  if  you  recall 
him.  It  means  to  ask  if  you  re- 
call the  telling  by  him. 

Sentence  8  You  can  readily  see  that  the  sen- 
tence does  not  mean  that  John 
had  not  heard  of  us. 

In  each  of  the  following  the  word  preceding 
the  word  ending  with  ing  is  in  the  possessive  form. 
(See  pages  41-55  for  instruction  on  apostrophe.) 

Sentences  1-8  should  read: 

1.  What  do  you  think  of  his  going  on  the  stage? 
(The  reply  might  be,  "It's  a  good  idea.") 

2.  Do  you  approve  of  John's  becoming  an  actor? 

3.  My  not  having  the  opportunity  to  go  to 

school  when  I  was  young  has  made  me 
more  than  eager  to  study  now. 

4.  My  father  objected  to  my  going. 

*5.    On  account  of  the  meeting's  being  held  here 
we  can  not  use  the  room  for  dancing. 

6.  Do  you  remember  my  writing  to  you  about 

it? 

7.  Do  you  recall  his  telling  us  about  it? 

8.  John  had  not  heard  of  our  planning  the  trip. 

[57] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

*Caution:  Suppose  that  the  name  of  the  organ- 
ization which  was  holding  a  meeting  should  be 
mentioned  in  sentence  5.  Let  us  say,  for  ex- 
ample, the  Rotary  Club. 

It  would  be  incorrect  to  say: 

On  account  of  the  meeting's  of  the  Rotary 
Club  being  held  here  we  can  not  use  the  room 
for  dancing. 

It  would  also  be  incorrect  to  omit  the  apos- 
trophe and  s. 

When  you  find  yourself  in  such  a  diflSculty, 
reconstruct  your  sentence,  perhaps  like  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Since  the  Rotary  Club  is  holding  a  meeting 
in  this  room,  we  can  not  use  it  for  dancing. 

Notice  that  not  every  word  that  ends  with 
ing  must  be  preceded  by  a  word  in  the  possessive 
form. 

1.  The  doctor,  running  up  the  steps,  slipped  and 

broke  his  leg. 
The  doctor  slipped  and  broke  his  leg  (while 
running  up  the  steps). 

2.  The  dodor^s  running  up  the  steps   (not   the 

doctor)  disturbed  the  patient.  Whose  run- 
ning disturbed  the  patient?  The  doctor's 
running. 

[58] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Sentence  1  is  correct  without   the  apostrophe 

and  s. 
Sentence  2  requires  the  apostrophe  and  s. 

8.   The  robber,  breaking  into  the  house,  stumbled 

over  the  ladder. 
The  robber  stumbled  over  the  ladder  (while 

breaking  into  the  house). 
4.    The  rohbe/s  breaking  into   the  house  was   a 

violation  of  the  law. 

What  was  a  violation.?      The  breaking  into 

the  house  was  a  violation. 
The  robber  was  not  a  violation.      Therefore 

it  would  be  wrong  to  say: 
The  robber,  breaking  into  the  house,  was  a 

violation  of  the  law. 

Sentence  3  is  correct  without  the  apostrophe 
and  s. 

Sentence  4  requires  the  apostrophe  and  s. 

DEVICE 

When  you  use  one  of  these  troublesome  ing 
words  preceded  by  the  name  of  a  thing  (doctor, 
robber,  etc.),  try  the  possessive  form  first.  If 
the  possessive  form  can  be  used,  it  is  correct. 
If  it  cannot  be  used,  use  the  other  word.  Do 
not  try  the  other  form  first. 

[59l 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Illustration: 

Take  the  first  sentence  from  the  group  below. 
Suppose  that  you  say: 

It  was  we  coming  in  late  that  annoyed  the 
chairman.  We  may  not  sound  bad  to  your  ear. 
You  will  then  think  that  it  is  correct  and  use  it. 
But  we  is  wrong.  Had  you  tried  the  possessive 
form  {our)  first,  you  would  have  found  that  it 
could  be  used.  It  was  our  coming  in  late  that 
annoyed  the  chairman.  Do  not  forget  this  warn- 
ing :  Try  the  possessive  form  first  and  if  a  sensible 
sentence  results,  the  possessive  form  is  correct. 

EXERCISE  3 

Supply  the  correct  word  in  the  following. 
Compare  your  answers  with  those  on  page  357, 
exercise  3. 

1.  It  was  (we-our-us)  coming  in  late  that  an- 

noyed the  chairman. 

2.  Does    (we-our-us)    walking   in   the   upper 

apartment  disturb  you.^ 

3.  (We-our-us),  arriving  late,  took  seats  in  the 

rear  of  the  room. 

4.  Do  you  like  (we-our-us)  calling  to  see  you 

daily? 

5.  The    (note-note's)    falling  due  on  Sunday 

gives  us  one  day  longer. 

[60] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

6.  (It-its)  falling  due  on  Sunday  gives  us  one 

day  longer. 

7.  (It-its),  falling  due  on  Sunday,  can  be  paid 

on  Monday. 

8.  (I-my-me)   not  wanting  the  carpenter  on 

Monday  left  him  free  to  go  to  you. 

9.  (I-my-me),  not  wanting  the  carpenter  on 

Monday,    telephoned   to   you    that    you 
might  have  him  for  the  day. 

10.  What  do  you  think  of  the  idea  of  (my-me) 

studying  to  be  a  doctor? 

11.  Had  you  heard  of  (our-us)  going  to  Europe? 

12.  Did  (I-my-me)  going  change  your  plans? 

13.  The  (plumber-plumber's)  coming  late  upset 

my  plans. 
*14.    The  (children-children's)  being  absent  an- 
noyed the  teacher. 

15.  The   (ladies-ladies')   wearing  of  expensive 

gowns    indicated    the    extravagance    of 
the  times. 

16.  He   does   not   approve   of    (Mary-Mary's) 

traveling  alone. 

*It  is  very  clear  that  the  apostrophe  with  s  is 
required  in  sentence  14.  Without  the  apos- 
trophe  and  s  the  sentence  would  read: 

The  children,  being  absent,  annoyed  the 
teacher. 

If  they  were  absent,  how  could  they  annoy? 

[61] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

LIE— LAY 

To  use  lie  and  lay  correctly  requires  a  knowl- 
edge of  their  difference  in  meaning  and  applica- 
tion, and  also  the  memorizing  of  eight  little 
words. 

Here  they  are: 

Memorize  the  first  four  from  left  to  right; 
then  memorize  the  second  four. 


Present 
(See  Note  a, 
p.  67.) 

1.   To  recline      lie 

Past 

lay 

Ing  form 

(See  Note  6, 

p.  67.) 

lying 

Use  with 

has,  have, 

had 

lain 

2.  To  place  an 

object         lay 

laid 

laying 

laid 

Practice   saying  all  of   groups   1   and    2  ac- 
curately and  rapidly. 

DEVICE 

Step  a.  Decide  whether  the  use  to  which  the  word 
is  to  be  put  carries  the  idea  of  reclin- 
ing or  of  placing  an  object. 

Step  b.  If  it  carries  the  idea  of  reclining,  elimi- 
nate the  four  words  in  group  2. 
If  it  carries  the  idea  of  placing  an  object, 
eliminate  the  four  words  in  group  1. 

Step  c»  If  you  have  used  haSy  have,  had,  in  your 
sentence,  you  select  one  of  the  words 
under  has,  have,  had. 

[62] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

If  you  need  the  ing  form,  you  use  it. 
If  you  are  speaking  of  the  present  time, 

you  use  the  word  under  Present. 
If  you  are  speaking  of  the  past,  you  use 

the  word  under  Past. 

APPLICATION  OF  DEVICE 

1.  Father down  whenever  he  feels  ill. 

Step  a.  Decide  whether  reclining  or  placing  an 
object.     Answer:  reclining. 

b.  Eliminate  four  words  of  group  2. 
This  sentence  is  obviously  in  the  present. 

c.  The  word  required  is  lies. 

Therefore :   Father  lies  down  whenever  he  feels 
ill. 

2.  ^  The  gloves  are on  the  bureau. 

Step  a.  Decide.     Answer:  reclining. 

b.  Eliminate  four  words  in  group  2. 

c.  The  ing  form  is  required  with  are.    lying 

Therefore :   The  gloves  are  lying  on  the  bureau. 

3.  Rover in  the  sun  all  yesterday  morn- 
ing. 

Step  a.  Decide.     Rover  reclined. 

b.  Eliminate  four  words  in  group  2. 

c.  Yesterday  indicates  past  time.     The  re- 

quired word  is  lay. 

[63] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Therefore:  Rover  lay  in  the  sun  all  yesterday 
morning. 

4.  These  crumbs  have here  long  enough. 

Step  a.  Decide.     Reclining  idea  is  intended. 

6,  Eliminate  the  four  words  in  group  2. 

c.  The  word  have  requires  the  word  lain. 
Therefore:  These  crumbs  have  lain  here  long 
enough. 

5.  I  know  just  where  to the  blame. 

Step  a.  Decide.     This  obviously  means  to  place. 
Place  what.^     Place  blame. 
h.  Eliminate  the  four  words  in  group  1. 
c.  Choose  the  correct  word  from  the  re- 
maining four,     lay 
Therefore:  I  know  just  where  to  lay  the  blame. 

6.  He  the  books  there  a  few  moments 

ago. 

Step  a.  Decide.     This  means  placed. 

b.  Eliminate  the  other  four  words. 

c.  Choose  the  one  needed.     Moments  ago 

indicates  past,     laid 

Therefore:   He   laid  the   books   there   a   few 
moments  ago. 

7.  I  am  now the  clothes  in  the  drawer. 

Step  a.  Decide.     This  means  placing. 

[64l 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

b.  Eliminate  thejour  words  referring  to 
reclining. 

c.  Choose  one  of  the  remaining  four.     The 
ing  form  is  needed  with  am.      laying 

Therefore:  I  am  now  laying  the  clothes  in  the 
drawer. 

8.  The  hen three  eggs  in  three  days. 

Step  a.  Decide.      This    means   placed.     (Depos- 
ited.) 

b.  Eliminate  the  other  four  words. 

c.  The  sentence  may  be  construed  to  mean 
either  present  or  past,     lays  or  laid 

Therefore:  The  hen  lays  (or  laid)  three  eggs  in 
three  days. 

9.  Mary  has  just the  baby  in  the  crib. 

Step  a.  Decide.     Placed 

b.  Eliminate. 

c.  The  word  has  requires  laid. 

Therefore:  Mary  has  just  laid  the  baby  in  the 
I  crib. 

10.     down,  Rover. 

Step  a.  Decide.     Recline 

b.  Eliminate. 

c.  Choose.     This  means  that  Rover  must 
recline  now.     present  lie 

Therefore:  Lie  down,  Rover. 

[65] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

The  most  common  error  in  the  use  of  the  eight 
lie  and  lay  words  occurs  in  the  past  form  of  the 
reclining  group  which  is  lay. 

Wrong:  I  laid  down  for  an  hour  this  morning. 
Right:     I  lay  down  for  an  hour  this  morning. 

In  using  the  expression  lay  down  be  careful  to 
enunciate  the  words  clearly  in  order  to  prevent 
the  uniting  of  lay  and  down  in  such  a  way  as  to 
cause  them  to  sound  like  layd  down.  Say  lay  dis- 
tinctly; then  say  down. 

Many  persons  think  that  lie  is  applied  only 
to  persons.  They  know  that  it  is  correct  to  say, 
*'The  woman  lies  on  the  couch.'*  They  think 
that  it  is  incorrect  to  say  that  the  umbrella  lies. 
Do  not  argue  that  the  umbrella  could  not  lie 
on  the  couch  unless  some  one  placed  it  there. 
That  is  true;  but  unless  the  sentence  states  that 
some  person  or  animal  or  abstract  agent  depos- 
ited the  object,  the  reclining  words  must  be 
used. 

The  following  are  correct: 

1.  The  gloves  lie  on  the  table,     recline 

2.  The  blame  lies  with  you.     rests  (reclines) 

3.  The  dog  lies  on  the  grass,     reclines 

4.  The  baby  lies  in  its  crib,     reclines 

5.  It  lies  there  by  the  tour  without  crying. 

reclines 

[66] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

6.   Father  lies  down  every  afternoon,    reclines 
7..   The  trouble  lies  in  his  poor  home  training, 
rests  (reclines) 

8.  The  matter  lies  in  his  hands,     rests  (reclines) 

9.  He  laid  the  umbrella  upon  the  bed.    placed 

10.  The  dog  laid  the  bone  on  the  step,     placed 

11.  The  decision  laid  stress  upon  the  prisoner's 

defect,     placed 

12.  The  tomatoes  lay  in  the  sun  for  two  days 

before  turning  red.     reclined 

In  9  a  person  placed  an  object. 
In  10  an  animal  placed  an  object. 
In  11  an  abstract  agent  {decision)  placed  an 
abstract  object  (stress). 

Note  a:  Use  the  words  shall,  vnll,  do,  does,  did, 
may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  should,  would,  to, 
with  the  present  form  in  both  groups  of  words. 

Note  b:  Use  the  words  am,  is,  are,  was,  were, 
with  the  ing  form  in  both  groups  of  words. 

ILLUSTRATION 

1.  I  shall  lie  down  for  a  few  moments. 

2.  I  will  lie  down  whether  you  approve  or  not. 

3.  Do  lie  down  now. 

4.  Does   he   lie   down    every   afternoon?     He 

does  lie  down. 

[67] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

6,   I  did  lie  down  just  to  satisfy  you.  See  Note  c. 
6.   Mother  is  lying  on  the  couch. 

Note  c:  Even  though  did  is  past  time,  it  is 
used  with  the  present. 

To  falsify —        lie        lied        lying        lied 

1.  I  lie  to  my  teacher  but  I  know  that  it  is 

wrong. 

2.  I  did  lie  to  the  officer. 

3.  I  lied  to  the  woman. 

4.  He  is  lying  to  his  mother. 

5.  I  hope  that  you  have  not  lied  to  your  father. 

EXERCISE  4 

Supply  the  correct  lie  and  lay  words  in  the 
following  sentences: 

Compare  your  answers  with  those  on  page  359, 
exercise  4. 

1.  He  certainly  does  like  to in  the  sun. 

2.  Yesterday  Rover in  the  sun  all  morn- 

ing. 

3.  Shall  I here? 

4.  Shall  I the  package  here? 

5.  Mother  is down;  don't  disturb  her. 

6.  Father  my  books  on  the  table    this 

morning. 

7.  Father  was down  but  he  is  in  the  gar- 


den now. 


[68] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

8.  I  will down  if  you  insist. 

9.  Did  you down  yesterday  as  the  doctor 

ordered? 

LO.    Mary  in  the  hammock  aU  yesterday 

afternoon. 

LI.   The  responsibility  with  the  railroad 

company. 

[2.   The  responsibility  with  the  railroad 

company;  so   !Mr.    Jones   forced   prompt 
payment  for  the  injury  to  his  property. 

Mary  is the  clothes  away  now. 

She ;  she  is  not  to  be  trusted. 

Have  you down  at  all  today? 

I  had  just down  when  the  bell  rang. 

down.  Rover. 

the  hat  in  the  box. 

The  children everything  around.     It  is 

impossible  to  keep  order. 

20.   He  has  your  hat  on  the  piano;  please 

put  it  away. 

SIT— SET 

Present     Past       Ing  form     With  has, 

have,  had 

1.  To        repose 

upon  (as  on 

a  seat)  sit        sat      sitting  sat 

2.  To  place  an 

object  set       set       setting  set 

[69] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

1.   I  sit  in  the  front   seat  every  Sunday  at 

church. 
^.   She  sat  over  there  yesterday. 

3.  He  is  sitting  there  now. 

4.  They  have  sat  there  all  evening. 

Sentences  1,  2,  3,  4  show  the  use  of  group  1 
(to  repose  upon). 

5.  Set  the  kettle  over  there. 

6.  He  set  it  there  yesterday. 

7.  I  am  setting  the  things  on  the  shelf. 

8.  He  has  set  the  books  on  the  table. 

Sentences  5,  6,  7,  8  show  the  use  of  group  2 
(to  place  an  object). 

9.  The  dress  sits  well  (reposes  on  the  body  of 

its  owner). 

10.  The  sitting  hen  was  frightened  from  her 

nest. 

11.  The  hen  is  sitting  on  the  nest. 

12.  Hens  sit  (repose). 

If  sentences  9,  10,  11,  12  surprise  you,  do  not 
argue  that  your  dressmaker  and  farmer  use  sets 
and  setting.  They  are  authorities  on  dressmak- 
ing and  farming  but  not  on  English. 

[70] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

DEVICE 

(Notes  a,  6,  c  on  pages  67  and  68  under  Lie 
and  Lay  apply  to  sit  and  set.) 

Step  a.  Decide  whether  the  use. to  which  the 
word  is  to  be  put  carries  the  idea  of 
reposing  or  of  placing  an  object. 

Step    h.   If  it  carries  the  idea  of  reposing,  elim- 
inate the  four  words  in  group  2. 
If  it  carries  the  idea  of  placing  an  ob- 
ject,   eliminate    the   four    words    in 
group  1. 

In  either  case  you  have  left  only  four  words 
(instead  of  eight)  from  which  to  choose  the  re- 
quired word  as  directed  in  Step  c. 
Step    c.    If  you  have  used  has^  have,  had  in  your 
sentence,  you  select  one  of  the  words 
under  has,  have,  had. 
If  you  need  the  ing  form,  you  use  it. 
If  you  need  either  of  the  other  forms, 
you  use  it. 

APPLICATION  OF  DEVICE 

1.   I waiting  for  you  until  I  fell  asleep. 

Step  a.   Decide  whether  reposing  or  placing. 
Answer:  reposing, 
h.   Eliminate  four  words  of  group  2. 
c.    Choose.     Until  I  fell  asleep  indi- 
cates past,  sat. 

[71] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Therefore:  I  sat  waiting  for  you  until  I  fell 
asleep. 

EXERCISE  5 

Supply  the  correct  word  in  the  following  and 
compare  your  answers  with  those  on  page  360, 
exercise  5. 

1.  The    hen    could    be    seen    from    my 

window. 

2.  Does  my  coat well  across  the  shoulders? 

S.   He  is in  the  other  room. 

4.  I  have here  exactly  one  hour. 

5.  He  has the  table  (placed  the  dishes). 

6.  I the  table  for  mother. 

7.  Will  you  please this  down  for  me? 

8.  The  woman  is in  the  hall. 

9.  Do  you there? 

10.  I there  yesterday. 

CAUTIONS 

1.  In  the  United  States  army  there  is  used  a 
drill  called  the  "setting-up  drill."  Many 
persons  use  the  word  sitting -up  for  setting- 
up.  The  word  setting  in  this  case  has  no 
reference  to  reposing  in  a  chair.  It  means 
to  put  into  a  given  condition  or  state — 

[72] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

put  you  in  good  shape — the  exercise  sets 
you  up,  so  to  speak,  for  the  day's  work. 
The  setting-up  drills  are  now  given  in 
many  public  schools  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  children  fit  for  the  day's  work. 
Remember  to  say  setting-up  drill. 
2.  Some  dictionaries  give  fits  as  a  meaning  for 
sets.  Sets  is  then  marked  "colloquial." 
This  means  that  the  word  is  not  so  desir- 
able as  the  word  sits  for  this  particular 
meaning.  Perhaps  in  time  to  come  the 
word  sets  will  be  used  in  this  way  and  will 
not  be  marked  '*  colloquial."  Until  such 
time  you  will  be  using  correct  and  accu- 
rate English  if  you  say,  The  dress  sits 
well. 

RISE— ARISE— RAISE 
Apply  Notes  a,  6,  c,  pages  67  and  68. 

Present       Past      Ing  form    With  has, 

have,  had 

To  assume  an 
erect  posi- 
tion rise        rose      rising        risen 

To  assume  an 
erect  posi- 
tion arise       arose       arising       arisen 

[73] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


To  lift  an  ob- 

ject 

raise 

raised 

raising 

raised 

To  increase 

raise 

raised 

raising 

raised 

To       produce 

from      seed 

or  egg 

raise 

raised 

raising 

raised 

The  next  twenty  sentences  show  the  correct 
use  of  these  words. 

1.  I  always  rise  at  seven  o'clock. 

2.  Yesterday  I  rose  at  seven,  although  I  did 

not  have  to  go  to  business. 

3.  John  is  rising  at  six  o'clock  this  week  to  get 

an  early  start. 

4.  He  has  already  risen. 

5.  We  arise  at  eight  o'clock  when  we  are  in  the 

country. 

6.  Yesterday  we  arose  at  seven. 

7.  He  is  arising  now. 

8.  He  has  arisen. 

9.  Please  raise  the  windows  and  put  up  the 

shades. 

10.  He  raised  the  brackets  higher  on  the  wall. 

11.  He  is  raising  the  shades  to  admit  more  light. 

12.  He    has    raised   the    shelves    two    notches 

higher. 

13.  John  may  raise  his  salary  if  he  does  well. 

14.  John  raised  the  salaries  of  his  employees. 

[74] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

15.  I  had  raised  his  salary  just  before  he  re- 

signed. 

16.  I  am  gradually  raising  the  salaries  of  the 

men. 

17.  He  raises  chickens. 

18.  They  raised  wheat  and  corn  in  quantities. 

19.  Are  they  raising  poultry.^ 

20.  I  have  raised  a  few  chickens. 

EXERCISE  6 

Supply  the  correct  word  in  the  following. 
Compare  your  answers  with  those  on  page 
361,  exercise  6. 

1.  Has  he yet.^^ 

2.  What  time  do  you daily? 

3.  Did  Mr.  Brown   the  salaries  of  his 

men.?^ 

4.  Last  week  we  every  day  at  seven 

o'clock. 

5.  What  are  you on  your  farm? 

6.  Where  were  your  children ? 

7.  A in  salary  was  given  me  last  week. 

8.  Please the  window;  it  is  warm  here., 

9.  He  the  question  which  caused  the 

argument. 

10.  The  sun  has . 

11.   ,  please,  when  your  guests  enter  the 

room. 

[75l 


** 


Pitfalls  in  English 

12.  A  gentleman  always  when  a  lady 

enters  the  room. 

13.  What  time  does  the  sun now.'^ 

14.  It at  five  or  a  little  later. 

15.  Yesterday  it a  little  earlier. 

16.  Bread through  the  use  of  yeast. 

*Do  not  speak  of  raising  children.  Use  rear, 
reared,  rearing. 

**Do  not  speak  of  a  raise  in  salary  when  you 
mean  an  increase.  Speak  of  a  rise  in  wages  or 
salary.  If  you  do  not  care  to  use  rise,  use 
increase. 

Rise,  meaning  the  increase  itself  (not  to  in- 
crease) may  be  pronounced  to  rhyme  with  prize 
or  price.  The  former  is  more  commonly  used 
and  is  given  the  preference  in  the  Standard 
Dictionary  and  in  Webster's  Dictionary.  (Do 
not  be  confused  by  the  sound  equivalents  and 
the  diacritical  marks  in  any  dictionary.  Be  sure 
to  master  them  before  deciding  upon  the  pro- 
nunciation of  a  word.) 

WHO— WHOM 

Many  persons  not  sure  of  their  English  often 
pick  up  from  their  better  educated  friends  the 
word  whom.  They  observe  that  whom  often 
comes  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence;  hence  they 
incorrectly  use  it  in  the  following  way: 

[76] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

The  man  whom  I  knew  was  the  doctor  stood 
waiting  at  the  door. 

In  the  preceding  sentence  whom  should  be  who. 

AN  INFALLIBLE  DEVICE 

Step  a.  Combine  mentally  or  on  paper  the  two 
sections  that  make  sense. 

Step  b.  In  the  remaining  part  insert  at  the  first 
possible  point  the  word  he  or  him. 

Step  c.  If  you  have  inserted  he,  use  who;  if  you 
have  inserted  him,  use  whom. 

Exception:  If  the  sentence  is  a  question,  omit 
Step  a;  follow  b  and  c. 

Caution  1 :  Use  every  word  in  the  sentence  when 
applying  this  device. 
Do  not  use  an  extra  word. 

Caution  2:  Insert  he  or  him  whether  a  man  or  a 
woman  is  mentioned  in  the  sen- 
tence. 

Caution  3:  Insert  he  or  him  whether  one  or  more 
than  one  person  is  meant. 
(The  student  may  use  she  and  her, 
they  and  them,  as  necessity  re- 
quires, if  he  prefers.  If  she  or 
they  is  used,  the  required  word  is 
who;  if  her  or  them  is  used,  the 
required  word  is  whom.     Using  he 

[77] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

and  hiviy  regardless  of  sex  or  num- 
ber, makes  the  matter  of  decision 
a  simple  one.) 

APPLICATION  OF  DEVICE 

1.  The  woman  I  interviewed  could  give 

me  no  information. 

Step  a.  The  woman  could  give  me  no  infor- 
mation. (These  parts  combine  to 
make  sense.) 

b.  There   are   two   remaining   words. 

Insert  the  word  him  at  the  first 
possible  point. 
The  remaining  words  are:  /  inter- 
viewed.    I  interviewed  him. 

c.  Having  used  himy  I  know  that  the 

required  word  is  whom.     (Read 
Caution  2.) 
Therefore:  The  woman  whom  I  interviewed 
could  give  me  no  information. 

2.  The  person  I  thought   would  speak 

merely  introduced  the  speaker. 

Step  a.    The   person    merely   introdicced   the 

speaker.     (These   parts   combine 

to  make  sense.) 

b.    There   are   four   remaining   words. 

Insert  the  word  he  or  him  at  the 

[78] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

first  possible  point.  The  remain- 
ing words  are:  /  thought  would 
speak.  I  thought  he  would  speak, 
c.  Having  used  he,  I  know  that  the  re- 
quired word  is  who. 

Therefore:  The  person  who  I  thought  would 
speak  merely  introduced  the  speaker. 

3.  The  woman I  thought  to  be  a  brilliant 

speaker  failed  to  make  her  point. 

Step  a.  The  woman  failed  to  make  her  point. 
(These  parts  combine  to  make 
sense.) 

b.  There  are  seven  remaining  words. 

Insert  he  or  him  at  the  first  pos- 
sible point. 
Remaining  words :  I  thought  to  be  a 
brilliant  speaker.     I  thought  him 
to  be  a  brilliant  speaker. 

c.  Having  used  him,  I  know  that  the 

required  word  is  whom. 

Therefore :  The  woman  whom  I  thought  to  be  a 
brilliant  speaker  failed  to  make  her  point. 

4.  The  man I  considered  capable  was  not 

appointed. 

Step  a.  The  Tnan  was  not  appointed.  (These 
parts  combine  to  make  sense.) 

[79] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

b.  There  are  three  remaining  words. 

Insert  he  or  him  at  the  first  pos- 
sible point. 
Remaining     words:     I     considered 
capable.     I  considered  him  cap- 
able. 

c.  Having  used  him,  I  know  that  the 

required  word  is  whom. 

Therefore :  The  man  whom  I  considered  capable 
was  not  appointed. 

5.  The  woman  I  considered  was  capable 

was  not  appointed. 

Step  a.    The    woman     was    not     ajpjpointed. 

(These    parts  combine  to   make 

sense.) 
h.    There   are    four   remaining   words. 

Insert  he  or  him  at  the  first  pos- 
sible point. 
Remaining  words:  I  considered  was 

capable.     I    considered    he    was 

capable. 
c.    Having  used  he,  I  know  that  the 

required  word  is  who. 

Therefore:  The  woman  who  I  considered  was 
capable  was  not  appointed. 

6.  I  appointed  the  woman I  considered  to 

be  capable. 

[80] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Step  a.    I    appointed    the    woman.     (These 
parts  combine  to  make  sense.) 

h.  There  are  five  remaining  words.  In- 
sert he  or  him  at  the  first  possible 
point. 
Remaining  words:  I  considered  to 
be  capable.  I  considered  him  to 
be  capable. 

c.    Having  used  himy  I  know  that  the 
required  word  is  whom. 

Therefore:  I  appointed  the  woman  whom  I 
considered  to  be  capable. 

(The  following  are  questions.  Refer  to  excep- 
tion at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson.) 

7.    do  you  wish  to  see? 

Do  you  wish  to  see  him  ? 

Having  used  him,  I  know  that  the  required 
word  is  whom. 

Therefore:  Whom  do  you  wish  to  see.'* 

8.   do  you  want? 

Do  you  want  him? 

Having  used  him,  I  know  that  the  required 
word  is  whom. 

Therefore:  Whom  do  you  want? 

9.   did  you  say  called? 

Did  you  say  he  called? 

Having  used  he,  the  required  word  is  who. 

Therefore:  Who  did  you  say  called? 

[8i] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

10.    do  you  think  it  was? 

Do  you  think  it  was  he?    (It  was  he  not  It  was 
him.)     See  pages  94-96  for  explanation. 

Having  used  he,  I  know  that  the  required 
word  is  who. 

Therefore:  Who  do  you  think  it  was? 

11.  To did  you  give  the  book? 

Did  you  give  the  book  to  him? 

Having  used  him,  I  know  that  the  required 
word  is  whom. 

Therefore:  To  whom  did  you  give  the  book? 

Note:  Whom  did  you  give  the  book  to,  is  not 
incorrect,  but  To  whom  did  you  give  the  book, 
is  better  style. 

EXERCISE  7 

Supply  who  or  whom  in  each  of  the  following. 
Compare  your  answers  with  those  on  page  362, 
exercise  7. 

1.  The  criminal  alienists  say  is   normal 

should  be  punished. 

2.  The  man  the  alienists  judged  as  nor- 

mal should  be  punished. 

3.  The  man alienists  consider  to  be  nor- 

mal should  be  punished. 

*  4.   The  boy I  thought  artistic  failed  in  his 

drawing  examination. 
[82] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

5.  They  invited  the  members the  records 

showed  were  in  good  standing. 

6.  They    invited    the    members    were 

thought  to  be  in  good  standing. 

7.  They  invited  the  members the  officers 

had  not  invited. 

8.  To did  you  speak? 

9.    shall  I  say  called? 

10.    shall  I  call? 

11.   did  you  sit  behind  at  the  concert? 

12.  From did  you  receive  the  gift? 

13.  The  woman, I  knew  to  be  your  sister, 

rang  the  bell. 

14.  The  woman,  I  knew  was  your  sister, 

rang  the  bell. 

15.  The  woman I  knew  was  your  sister. 

16.  The  boys  wished  to  obtain  positions 

for  the  summer  did  not  go  to  camp. 

17.  The  man I  thought  capable  obtained 

the  position. 

18.  The  woman  I  took  to  be  your  sister 

was  really  you. 

19.   is  there? 

20.   did  you  ask  for  the  privilege? 

*0n  page  77,  Caution  1  warns  you  not  to  use 
an  extra  word.  Sentence  4  shows  the  necessity 
for  care  upon  this  point.     Explanation : 

Suppose  that  you  insert  he  was  {was  being  the 

[83] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

extra  word)  after  the  word  thought — I  thought 
he  was  artistic.  Having  inserted  he  you  would 
think  that  who  would  be  the  correct  word.  Who 
would  be  wrong  and  your  error  would  be  the 
result  of  having  inserted  the  extra  word  was. 

The  application  of  the  device  should  be:  I 
thought  him  artistic. 

Remember  that  thought  is  quicker  than 
speech.  It  takes  only  an  instant  to  apply  this 
simple,  infallible  device. 

Say  over  and  over  to  yourself,  aloud,  and  to 
your  family,  until  your  ear  becomes  accustomed 
to  them,  the  expressions  which  follow: 

to  whom,  of  whom,  with  whom,  between  whom, 
near  whom,  behind  whom,  among  whom. 

When  to  use  who,  which,  that: 

(a)  Who  is   used   in   speaking  of  persons  only. 

The  man  who  lives  there  is  my  uncle. 
(6)   Which  is  applied  to  animals  and  things. 

The  horse,  which  belonged  to  my  father,  was 

shot  today,     (animal) 
The  house,  which  was  of  Colonial  type,  was 
being  torn  down,     (thing) 
(c)    That  is  used  for  persons,  animals,  and  things. 
The   man   that   called   today   was   shabbily 
dressed,     (person) 

[84] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Better: 

(The  man  who  called  today  was  shabbily 

dressed.)     See  (a) 
That  is  the  cow  that  gives  the  fine  milk. 

(animal) 
I  selected  the  book  that  John  gave  you  for 

Christmas,     (thing) 

Whose  should  be  applied  only  to  persons. 

Right:     The  man  whose  notes  I  borrowed  has 

left  the  city,     (person) 
Wrong:  The  novel  whose  English  is   good   is  a 

delight,     (thing) 
Right:     The  novel,  the  English  of  which  is  good, 

is  a  delight. 

AFFECT— EFFECT 

EXERCISE  8 

In  books,  newspapers,  social  and  business  let- 
ters these  two  words  are  used  incorrectly  more 
often  than  any  others.  Perhaps  you  think  that 
you  understand  their  use.  If  you  do,  try  to  sup- 
ply these  words  and  compare  your  answers  with 
those  on  page  363,  exercise  8.  Do  not  look  at 
the  answers  until  you  have  written  the  next  six 
sentences. 

1.  What  was  the of  the  medicine? 

2.  He  tried  to peace  in  the  organization. 

[85] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

3.  His s  were  moved  into  the  street. 

4.  The  law  will  go  into  the  first  of  the 

year. 

5.  The was  immediate. 

6.  In    ing    a    reconciliation    between    the 

brother  and  sister  he  lost  the  friendship  of 
both. 

By  this  time  you  have  consulted  the  answers 
and  you  are  probably  a  bit  surprised. 

EXERCISE  9 

How  about  these?  After  deciding  consult 
answers,  page  363,  exercise  9. 

7.  What  does  that  type  of  person  have 

upon  you? 

8.  What does  the  medicine  have? 

9.  How  did  the  medicine you? 

10.  That  man s  me  unpleasantly. 

11.  That    man    s    harmony    in    whatever 

organization  he  enters. 

12.  The  girl  has  an ed  manner. 

13.  The  music  deeply ed  me. 

14.  Dr.  Ross's  sermons me. 

Now  study  the  device.  Remember:  I  am 
telling  you  that  it  will  seem  silly,  but  it  is  an 
infallible  device  and  that  is  what  you  want; 
isn't  it? 

186] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

DEVICE 
Step  a.   Substitute  the   expression    hring    about, 

brought  about,  or  bringing  about  in  place 

of  the  required  word. 
If  bring  about,   brought  about,   bringing 

about  can  be  used,  the  required  word 

is  effect,  effected,  or  effecting. 
Step  b.   K  not  one  of  these  expressions  can  be 

used,  try  the  word  result.     K  it  can 

be  used,  the  required  word  is  effect. 
Step  c.    If  not  any  one  of  these  expressions  can 

be  used,  the  required  word  is   affect, 

affected,  or  affecting. 

Caution  1.    Be  sure  to  try  steps  a  and  b  first. 
Caution  2.    Do  not  put  any  word  between  bring 

and  about. 
Caution  3.    Effect  will  never  be  correct  before 
any  word  that  means  a  person:  une, 

you,  woman,  George. 

ILLUSTRATION 
1.   T\Tiat  was  the of  the  treatment? 

Step  a.    What  was  the  bring  about  of  the 
treatment? 
Silly!     No  sense  to  that. 
b.    What  was  the  result  of  the  treat- 
ment? 
That  sounds  all  right.     The  word 
is  effect. 

[87] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Therefore:  What  was  the  effect  of  the  treat- 
ment?    (Simple?) 

2.  How  can  we  permanent  peace  among 

the  nations  of  the  world? 
Step  a.    How  can  we  bring  about  permanent 
peace  among  the  nations  of  the 
world? 
Bring  about  fits  as  nicely  as  your 
new  glove. 

Therefore :  How  can  we  effect  permanent  peace 
among  the  nations  of  the  world? 

3.  Did  his  remarks you? 

Step  a.    Did  his  remarks  bring  about  you? 
Silly!     No  sense  to  that. 

b.  Did  his  remarks  result  you?    Silly! 

No  sense  to  that. 

c.  Since  neither  meaning  of  effect  ap- 

plies, the  required  word  is  affect. 

Therefore:  Did  his  remarks  affect  you? 

Suppose  you  had  forgotten  to  observe  Caution 
2.  Caution  2  requests  that  you  do  not  put  a 
word  between  bring  and  about.  Suppose  that 
you  had  said: 

Did  his  remarks  bring  you  about  ? 

You   might  consider  this  to   mean  that   in  an 
argument  a  man's  remarks  convinced  you  or 

[88] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

brought  you  over  to  the  other  side  of  the  ques- 
tion. In  that  case  you  would  think  that  bring 
about  could  be  applied  and  you  would  supply 
effect.  You  would  then  be  wrong.  To  avoid 
this  error  be  sure  to  observe  Caution  2. 

It  was  not  necessary  to  go  through  these  three 
steps  in  number  3,  because  of  the  word  you. 
Caution  3  warns  you  not  to  put  effect  before  a 
word  that  means  a  person.  You  is  a  person. 
Therefore  effect  could  not  be  used.  The  word  is 
affect. 

Now  refer  to  sentence  3  again  and  read  the 
steps  through  to  be  sure  that  you  understand 
why  affect  is  correct. 

4.   Did  his  treatment you  immediately? 

Step  a.    Did  his  treatment  bring  about  you 
immediately?    Silly.    No  sense. 

b.  Did     his     treatment     result     you? 

Silly!     No  sense. 

c.  Since    neither     meaning    of    effect 

applies,    the    required    word    is 
affect. 

Therefore:  Did  his  treatment  affect  you  im- 
mediately? 

Notice  that  no  word  is  permitted  to  creep  in 
between  bring  and  about.  Notice  that  without 
going  through  these  three  steps  it  is  known  that 

[89] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

the  required  word  is  affect  because  of  the  word 
you,     (Caution  S.) 

5.  She  has  an ed  manner. 

Step  a.  She  has  a  bring  about  manner. 
Silly!  A  person  may  have  a 
fetching  manner  but  not  a  bring 
about  manner. 

b.  She    has    a    result    manner.     Silly! 

She  may  have  a  manner  that 
brings  results  but  not  a  result 
manner. 

c.  The  word  must  be  affect. 

Therefore:  She  has  an  affected  manner. 

6.  The  doctor  is ing  a  remarkable  cure. 

Step  a.   The    doctor    is    bringing    about    a 

remarkable  cure.     Fine! 

Therefore :  The  doctor  is  effecting  a  remarkable 
cure. 

7.  The  business  depression  is ing  the  con- 

fidence of  the  people. 

Step  a.  The  business  depression  is  bringing 
about  the  confidence  of  the  people. 
This  sounds  all  right  to  the  ear, 
but  it  is  ridiculous  because  de- 
pression does  not  arouse  confi- 
dence. 

[90] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

b.  The   business    depression   is    result 

the  confidence  of  the  people.    No 
sense  to  that. 

c.  The  word  must  then  be  affect. 

Therefore:  The  business  depression  is  affect- 
ing  the  confidence  of  the  people. 

Suppose  that  instead  of  degression  we  were 
to  use  the  word  prosperity.  Then,  either  affect 
or  effect  would  be  correct,  depending  upon  what 
we  had  in  mind. 

Right:  The  business  prosperity  is  effecting  the 

confidence   of   the   people,      (bringing 

about) 
Right:  The  business  prosperity  is  affecting  the 

confidence    of    the    people.       (acting 

upon) 

SPECIAL  USES  OF  "EFFECT" 

1.  A  person's  belongings  are  his  effects. 

2.  A  law  goes  into  effect,     (operation) 

3.  Use  effect  after  the  word  to  and  into,  (to 
the  effect,  into  effect) 

Notice  that  we  use  effect  in  the  sense  of  bring 
about  in  connection  with  only  abstract  things. 
We  effect  peace^  reconciliation,  harmony,  a  changCy 
a  revival,  a  satisfactory  condition.     (This  is  only 

[91] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

another  way  of  saying  Caution  c  which  you  will 
now  please  read.) 

Once  in  a  great  while  both  affect  and  effect 
can  be  used  in  a  sentence  (see  7)  at  which  time 
you  must  use  judgment  in  determining  what  is 
meant. 

Effect y  you  have  been  told,  means  both 
bring  about  and  result. 

Affect  means  to  act  upon,  assume  a  man- 
ner, touch  emotionally. 

Do  not  think  of  affect  as  meaning  influence. 
If  you  do  you  will  make  a  mistake  in  the  use  of 
these  two  words.  There  is  a  grammatical  dis- 
tinction between  the  two  italicized  words  in 
the  following  sentences,  which,  if  you  have  no 
knowledge  of  technical  grammar,  will  not  be 
clear  to  you,  and  which  distinction  it  is  not 
necessary  for  you  to  understand  if  you  will  follow 
the  preceding  infallible  device.  In  each  of 
the  following  sentences  influence  can  be  used; 
but  in  one  the  word  is  affect  and  in  the  other, 
effect  (Please  adhere  to  the  device  with  its  three 
steps.) 

Did  his  remarks  influence  you?  affect 

The  influence  of  his  remarks  was  felt,      effect 
Did  his  remarks  affect  you.^ 
The  effect  of  his  remarks  was  felt. 

[92] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

The  difficulty  in  the  application  of  these  words 
originates  in  the  fact  that  so  many  persons 
have  been  incorrectly  taught  that  affect  means 
influence  and  effect  means  result. 

*Affect  means     to    influence 

*Effect    (in    addition    to 

meaning  hmng  about)        means     influence 

*Please  ignore  this  when  following  the  device. 

A  parting  word:  Pronounce  these  words  dis- 
tinctly so  that  the  listener  may  know  whether 
you  are  saying  a}  or  ef.  Do  not  pronounce  them 
as  though  they  are  spelled  2//-fect.  Do  not  say  e 
(rhyming  with  he)  feet  in  your  effort  to  show  that 
you  know  which  you  are  using  in  your  speech. 
Let  the  first  syllable  of  effect  {ef)  rhyme  with  the 
letter  /;  let  the  first  syllable  of  affect  (af)  rhyme 
with  taf  as  in  taffy. 

EXERCISE  10 

Supply  affect  or  effect  in  the  following. 
Consult  answers  on  page  364,  exercise  10. 

1.  The  officer's  speech  did  not  the  boy. 

2.  How  did  the  climate you.'^ 

3.  The of  the  climate  was  disastrous. 

4.  The  ordinance  went  into  yesterday. 

5.  The  punishment  ed  a  sudden  change  in 

his  behavior. 

[93] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

6.  The  punishment ed  him. 

7.  That  does  not the  situation. 

(Either  can  be  used  in  sentence  7.  Your  deci- 
sion will  depend  upon  what  you  think  the  sen- 
tence means.) 

Do  Not  Be  Discouraged.  This  Rule 
Will  Never  Fail  You.  Memorize  It  Axd 
Apply  It.  It  Is  One  Of  The  Most  Valuable 
In  The  Book  In  Its  Use  To  Business  IVIen 
And  Women. 

Be  Sure  To  Ignore  The  Lines  !Marked 
W'lTH  An  Asterisk  (*).  It  Is  Much  Safer  To 
Follow  The  Foolish  Device. 

TO  BE 

Memorize  the  next  sentence. 

After  to  be  (one  exception),  be,  am,  is,  are,  was, 
were,  being,  been,  use  7,  thou,  he,  she,  we,  they. 

Read  the  following  and  decide  which  are 
correct. 

1.  How  should  you  like  to  be  he? 

2.  Should  you  like  to  be  she? 

3.  How  should  you  like  to  be  I,  driving  an  ice- 

wagon  all  day.'* 

4.  We  told  them  that  we'd  like  to  be  they, 

5.  It  was  /  who  rang  the  bell. 

6.  It  was  we  who  called  at  your  home. 

7.  It  was  she  who  made  the  inquiry. 

t94l 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

8.  It  was  they  who  stole  the  boat. 

9.  It  was  he  who  asked  me  to  go. 

10.  If  you  were  /,  should  you  do  it? 

11.  If  George  had  been  he,  he  would  have  lost 

his  temper. 

12.  Where  are  the  mittens  which  you  adver- 

tised.'^    These  are  them. 

The  first  eleven  sentences  are  correct.  The 
twelfth  is  wrong.     These  are  they,  is  right. 

Say  many  times  aloud  sentences  13-17  (a 
and  6). 


13a. 

It  is  I. 

136. 

It  was  /. 

14a. 

It  is  he. 

146. 

It  was  he. 

15a. 

It  is  she. 

156. 

It  was  she. 

16a. 

It  is  we. 

166. 

It  was  we. 

17a. 

It  is  they. 

176. 

It  was  they 

Say  them  so  many  times  that  the  errors  in 
18-22  (a  and  6)  will  not  slip  from  your  tongue  in 
an  unguarded  moment. 

Wrong  Wrong 


*18a. 

It  is  me. 

*186. 

It  was  me. 

19a. 

It  is  him. 

196. 

It  was  him. 

20a. 

It  is  her. 

206. 

It  was  her. 

21a. 

It  is  us. 

216. 

It  was  us. 

22a. 

It  is  them. 

226. 

It  was  them 

*Some  grammarians  predict  that  It  is  me  wiU 
be  sanctioned  sooner  or  later.     You  will  do  well 

[95] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

to  avoid  the  expression.  If  you  speak  poorly 
and  say,  It  is  me,  you  will  be  classed  as  igno- 
rant; if  your  English  is  excellent  and  you  use 
It  is  me,  only  by  the  informed,  will  you  be  con- 
sidered correct.  You  are  safe  with  all  classes  if 
you  say.  It  is  I.  The  ear  of  the  ignorant  will 
not  be  offended ;  the  educated  will  know  that  you 
are  speaking  correctly. 

EXCEPTION 

After  to  he  when  to  be  is  preceded  by  the  name 
of  a  thing  use  me,  thee,  him,  her,  us,  them. 

ILLUSTRATION 

23.    The  teacher  knew  the  culprit  to  be  me. 

Notice  the  expression  to  be.  Preceding  to  be 
you  will  find  the  word  culprit.  Culprit  is  the 
name  of  a  thing.  Therefore  after  to  be  we  use 
the  word  me,  instead  of  /  as  in  sentence  3  of  this 
lesson.  In  sentence  3  the  word  preceding  to  be 
is  like.  Like  is  not  the  name  of  a  thing.  Hence 
after  to  be  in  sentence  3  we  use  /.  After  to  be 
in  sentences  like  23  we  use  me,  thee,  him,  her,  us, 
them. 

EXERCISE  II 

Decide  upon  the  correct  word  for  each  of  the 
following.  Consult  answers,  page  365,  exer- 
cise 11. 

[96] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

1.  He  said  that  it  was ^  who  did  it.    (me-I) 

2.  If  you  had  been ,  you  would  have  done 

the  same  thing,     (they-them) 

3.  It  was  not who  called,     (she-her) 

4.  If  I  were ,  I  should  go.     (he-him) 

5.  The  nurse  thought  the  patient  to  be . 

(I-me) 

6.  The  officer  said  that  it  was  who  falsi- 

fied,    (she-her) 

7.  (A    knock    is    heard.)     Who's    there?     It's 

.     (we-us) 

8.  (Another  knock.)     Who's  there.^     It's . 

(I-me) 

9.  She  thought  my  sister  to  be .     (I-me) 

10.  I  thought  it  was  to  have  been  who 

would  present  the  prize.     (I-me) 

11.  (Over  the  telephone.)     May  I  speak  to  Miss 

Smith?     This  is .     (she-her) 

12.  It  was  who  responded  to  the  call  for 

help,     (they-them) 

Remember  that  the  exception  applies  only  to 
to  be,  not  to  the  word  be  alone,  nor  to  am,  is,  are, 
was,  were,  being,  been. 

Before  consulting  the  answers  on  page  364, 
put  each  of  your  answers  to  the  following  test : 

Suppose  that  you  have  said  in  sentence  1 
He  said  that  it  was  me, 

[97] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Transpose  me  and  it. 

He  said  that  me  was  it. 

You  know  that  me  was  is  wrong. 
That  shows  that  you  should  have  used  Z. 
He  said  that  it  was  /. 

Now  transpose  again. 

He  said  that  I  was  it. 

I  was  is  correct. 

Therefore:  He  said  that  it  was  I  who  did  it. 

Suppose  that  in  number  2  you  have  said 
If  you  had  been  them. 

Transpose  them  and  you. 

If  them  had  been  you 

You  know  that  them  had  is  wrong. 
That  shows  that  you  should  have  used  they. 
If  you  had  been  they 

Now  transpose  again. 

If  they  had  been  you 

They  had  is  correct. 

Therefore:  If  you  had  been  they,  you  would 
have  done  the  same  thing. 

Suppose  that  in  number  3  you  have  said 
It  was  not  she  who  called. 

Transpose  she  and  it. 

She  was  not  it. 

[98] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

She  was  is  correct. 

Therefore:  It  was  not  she  who  called. 

Suppose  that  in  number  4  you  have  said 
If  I  were  him. 

Transpose  him  and  I. 

If  him  were  / 

You  know  that  him  were  (was)  is  wrong. 
That  shows  that  you  should  have  used  he. 
If  I  were  he 

Now  transpose  again. 
If  he  were  I 

(If)  he  were  is  correct. 
Therefore:  If  I  were  he,  I  should  go. 

(See  page  172  for  use  of  were  instead  of  was,  as 
in  sentence  4.) 

Suppose  that  in  number  5  you  have  said 

The  nurse  thought  the  patient  to  be  7. 
Transpose  I  and  patient. 

The  nurse  thought  I  to  be  the  patient. 

You  know  that  thought  I  is  wrong. 

That  shows  that  you  should  have  used  me. 
The  nurse  thought  the  patient  to  be  me. 

Now  transpose  again. 
The  nurse  thought  me  to  be  the  patient. 

Thought  me  is  correct. 

[991 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Therefore:  The  nurse  thought  the  patient  to 
be  me. 

The  transposition  of  these  words  in  sentences 
with  to  be  always  exposes  the  error,  if  there  is 
one. 

WHICH  DO  YOU  SAY? 

I  feel  bad.  or     I  feel  badly. 

She  looks  bad.    or     She  looks  badly. 

Right  Wrong 

1.  I  feel  bad.  1.    I  feel  badly. 

2.  She  feels  faint.  2.    She  looks  badly. 

3.  He  seems  faint.  3.    He  works  rapid. 

4.  The  rose  smells  sweet. 

5.  The  apple  tastes  sweet. 

6.  She  looks  bad. 

7.  The  medicine  tastes  bad. 

8.  He  writes  badly. 

9.  She  sews  poorly. 

10.  They  sing  sweetly. 

11.  I  spoke  faintly. 

12.  She  touched  it  lightly. 

13.  He  works  rapidly. 

14.  Go  slow. 

15.  Go  slowly. 

16.  Go  quick. 

17.  Go  quickly. 

[lOO] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

DEVICE 

K  you  have  trouble  in  deciding  whether  or  not 
to  use  the  ly  form  of  the  word,  ask  yourself  if 
there  is  any  real  action  expressed  in  the  sentence. 
If  there  is  action,  you  need  ly;  if  there  is  not 
action,  you  do  not  need  ly. 

Exceptions:  14,  15,  16,  17,  in  which  either  form 
is  correct. 

REASONING 

In  sentence  1,  I  feel  had,  did  I  do  any  feeling? 
Did  I  use  my  fingers  in  touching,  feeling  any- 
thing? Is  there  any  physical  action?  The 
answer  to  these  three  questions  is  no.  Then  the 
ly  should  be  omitted. 

In  sentence  2,  She  feels  faint,  is  there  any 
action?  Is  she  feeling  anything?  No.  Omit 
ly. 

In  sentence  3,  He  seems  faint,  is  there  any 
action?     No.     Omit  ly. 

In  sentence  4,  The  rose  smells  sweet,  did  the 
rose  do  any  smelling?  It  is  obvious  that  the 
rose,  having  no  nose,  cannot  smell.  The  speaker 
performed  the  act  of  smelling.  The  rose  did 
nothing.     Omit  ly. 

In  sentence  5,  The  apple  tastes  sweet,  it  is  clear 
that  the  apple  did  nothing.  The  apple  cannot 
taste.     It  has  no  tongue.     Omit  ly. 

In  sentence  6,  She  looks  bad,  she  did  nothing; 

[lOl] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

it  was  the  speaker  who  did  the  looking.  Omit 
ly. 

In  sentence  7,  The  medicine  tastes  had,  the 
medicine  did  nothing.  The  invalid  did  the 
tasting.     Omit  ly. 

In  sentences  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13  the  words 
lorites,  sews,  sing,  spoke,  touched,  works,  are  all 
action  words  and  require  the  ly  added  to  the 
words  which  describe  how  the  actions  were 
performed. 

How  does  he  write?  badly 

How  does  she  sew.^  poorly 

How  do  they  sing?  sweetly 

How  did  I  speak?  faintly 

How  did  I  touch  it?  lightly 

How  does  he  work?  rapidly 

The  automobile  signs,  Drive  slow  and  Go  slow, 
have  disturbed  some  persons  who  are  careful  of 
their  English,  because  they  have  not  consulted 
the  dictionary  about  the  word  slow. 

You  will  find  that  slow  and  slowly  may  both 
be  used  to  describe  how  an  action  is  performed. 
The  same  is  true  of  quick  and  quickly  and  some 
other  words.  Whenever  you  are  in  doubt,  con- 
sult the  dictionary.  Remember  that  you  must 
know  how  to  use  this  remarkable  book  or  you 
will  draw  wrong  conclusions.     See  page  234. 

[102] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

A  test  that  will  work  ninety-nine  times  out 
of  a  hundred  is  worth  using. 

TEST 

K  am,  isy  are,  was,  were  can  be  used  in  place 
of  the  action  word  which  sometimes  does  not 
express  action,  ly  is  omitted.  Observe  the 
following  note: 

Note:  Words  which  at  first  thought  express 
action  but  really  do  not  are  }eels,  seemSy 
smells,  tastes,  looks.  These  are  the  words 
to  which  the  above  test  refers. 

1.  I  feel  bad,  means 

I  am  bad  (in  the  sense  of  ill). 

2.  She  feels  faint,  means 

She  is  faint. 

3.  He  seems  faint,  means 

He  is  faint. 

4.  The  rose  smells  sweet,  means 

The  rose  is  sweet. 

5.  The  apple  tastes  sweet,  means 

The  apple  is  sweet. 

6.  She  looks  bad,  means 

She  is  bad  (ill). 

7.  The  medicine  tastes  bad,  means 

The  medicine  is  bad. 
[103] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

8.    He  writes  badly,  does  not  mean 
He  is  bad  (ill). 

Conclusion:  Since  am  and  is  are  applied  cor- 
rectly in  sentence  1-7,  ly  is  omitted. 

Since  not  one  of  these  words  can  be  applied  in 
sentence  8,  ly  is  correct. 


WHERE  MANY  EDUCATED  PERSONS 
MAKE  MISTAKES 

Nearly  all  persons  use  most  of  the  ly  words 
correctly.  The  careful  speaker  will  use  them  all 
correctly.  He  needs  to  pay  attention  to  the 
words  feel  and  look.  In  this  lesson  he  is  urged 
to  say  always  and  forever : 

I  feel  bad         He  felt  bad         She  looks  bad 
They  look  bad  She  feels  bad 

no  matter  how  many  doctors,  lawyers,  mer- 
chants, chiefs,  or  any  other  well  educated  per- 
sons use  ly  in  these  sentences,  when  in  all  other 
particulars  they  speak  well.  Because  many 
university  graduates  make  this  mistake,  those 
not  so  well  trained  must  have  this  error  pointed 
out  to  them  most  carefully  in  order  that  they 
may  not  be  tempted  to  follow  the  incorrect 
example  of  those  who  are  supposed  to  know. 

[104] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

EXERCISE  12 

Answer  the  following  and  compare  your 
answers  with  those  on  page  365,  exercise  12. 

1.  I  felt  so that  I  could  have  wept,     (bad- 

badly) 

2.  He  wrote  so  that  we  could  not  read 

the  sheet,     (bad-badly) 

3.  They  seemed  so  that  we  engaged  them 

to  take  care  of  the  children,     (kind-kindly) 

4.  How she  looked  when  she  was  dancing! 

(bad-badly) 

5.  He  spoke to  me.  (harsh-harshly) 

6.  Doesn't  she  look ?     (bad-badly) 

7.  The  man  walked  .     (rapid-rapidly) 

8.  The  stream  flows  .     (swift-swiftly) 

9.  The  nurse  acted .     (prompt-promptly) 

Advice:  In  cases  where  either  form  is  correct, 
it  is  more  pleasing  to  the  ear  to  use  the  ly  form 
when  a  distinct  action  is  expressed. 

Go  slow.  Go  slowly.  Either  is  right.  Since 
go  expresses  action,  ly  is  more  pleasing  to  the  ear 
of  the  cultured  person. 

In  sentence  3  of  the  exercise  above  there  is  no 
action  expressed  by  the  word  seemed.  Where 
no  action  is  expressed  in  cases  where  the  ly  may 
or  may  not  be  used,  the  ear  is  better  pleased  to 
have  the  ly  omitted.     We  speak  of  kind  persons 

[105] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

and  of  kindly  persons.     In  this  sentence  either 
would  be  correct.     Most  persons  prefer  kind. 

Do  not  depend  upon  your  ear  unless  you  have 
had  much  training  in  English. 

SELF-WORDS 

By  self-words  is  meant  any  word  ending  in  self 
or  selves. 

The  self -words  are:  my  self,  thyself,  yourself, 
himself,  herself,  itself,  ourselves,  yourselves,  them- 
selves. 

Many  persons  incorrectly  use  one  of  these 
words  when  they  do  not  know  whether  to  say  I 
or  me,  he  or  him,  she  or  her,  we  or  us,  they  or  them. 

Illustration:  The  speaker  wishes  to  say: 

The  man  passed  the  cigars  to  John  and • 

(the  speaker). 

He  does  not  know  whether  to  say  to  John  and 
/  or  to  John  and  me. 

Thinking  that  the  word  myself  will  help  him 
out  of  his  difficulty  he  says: 

The  man  passed  the  cigars  to  John  and  myself. 
Myself  is  incorrect. 

To  use  myself  in  this  sentence  is  as  gross  an 
error  as  the  one  the  speaker  tried  to  avoid — 
that  of  saying  I  for  me  or  me  for  7.  See  pages 
110-112  and  165-167. 

[106] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

HOW  TO  USE  SELF-WORDS 

Self -words  have  two  uses.     They  must  never 
be  put  to  any  other  use. 
The  two  uses  are: 

emphatic  which  means  for  the  purpose  of 
emphasis. 

reverting  which  indicates  a  reference  to 
the  person,  animal,  or  thing 
previously  spoken  of. 

Illustration  of  emphatic  use : 

I,  my  self y  did  not  go;  I  sent  Mary. 

You  can  readily  see  that  the  sentence  is  more 
emphatic  than  if  it  were: 

I  did  not  go;  I  sent  Mary. 

Illustration  of  reverting  use: 
He  cut  himself. 

{Himself  reverts  to  he.) 

Notice  that  the  self-word  always  represents 
the  same  person  (or  persons)  that  is  mentioned 
in  the  other  part  of  the  sentence. 

1.  I  bumped  myself,     (reverting) 

2.  He  burned  himself,     (reverting) 

3.  It  lifted  itself  and  crawled  away,      (revert- 

ing) 

[107] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

4.  We    punished    ourselves    by    not     going. 

(reverting) 

5.  You  hurt  yourselves,     (reverting) 

6.  They  ornamented  themselves,     (reverting) 

7.  I,  myself,  do  not  use  slang;  but  I  think  it 

expressive,     (emphatic) 

8.  He,  himself,  did  it.     (emphatic) 

9.  Be  fair  with  yourself,     (reverting) 

10.  Do  not  blame  yourself,     (reverting) 

11.  You  did  it  yourselves,     (emphatic) 

In  sentence  1  I  and  myself  mean  the  same 
person. 

In  sentence  2  he  and  himself  mean  the  same 
person. 

In   sentence   3   it  and   itself  mean    the  same 
thing. 

In  sentence  4  we  and  ourselves  mean  the  same 
persons. 

In  sentence  5    you  and   yourselves  mean   the 
same  persons. 

In  sentence  6   they  and   themselves  mean   the 
same  persons. 

In  sentence  7  I  and  myself  mean  the   same 
person. 

In  sentence  8  he  and  himself  mean  the  same 
person. 

In  sentence  9  the  speaker  is  talking  to  you. 
You  and  yourself  are  the  same  person. 

[io8] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

In  sentence  10  the  speaker  is  speaking  to  you. 
You  and  yourself  are  the  same  person. 

In  sentence  11  you  and  yourselves  are  the  same 
person.  , 

Wrong 

A 

1.  He  asked  John  and  myself  to  go. 

2.  Yourself  and  friends  are  invited. 

3.  How  do  you  do.^     I'm  well.     How's  your' 

self? 

4.  Myself  and  my  friend  are  going. 

5.  Myself  and  my  brother  stole  the  money. 

Right 

B 

1.  He  asked  John  and  me  to  go. 

2.  You  and  your  friends  are  invited. 

3.  How  do  you  do.^^     I'm  well.     How  are  you? 

4.  My  friend  and  I  are  going. 

5.  I  and  my  brother  stole  the  money. 

In  sentences  like  number  1,  group  B,  if  you 
have  difficulty  in  deciding  whether  to  use  I  or 
me,  omit  John.     Think  of  the  sentence  as 

He  asked  me  to  go. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  /  cannot  be  used.     See 
pages  110-112. 

[109] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

An  unimportant  but  interesting  vagary  of  the 
English  language  is  this: 

Courtesy  requires 

In  sentence  4,  group  B,  that  my  friend  be 
mentioned  first. 

In  sentence  5,  group  B,  that  I  mention  myself 
first,  because  I  am  confessing  guilt. 

Avoid  careless  speech. 
Do  not  say: 

hisself  for  himself  ourself  for  ourselves 

themself  for  themselves        theirselves  for  themselves 
their  self  for  themselves 

Do  not  put  an  apostrophe  in  any  of  the  self- 
words. 

WHICH  TO  USE,  /  OR  ME,  HE  OR  HIM,  SHE 
OR  HER,  WE  OR  US,  THEY  OR  THEM 

Is  it  difficult  for  you  to  decide  whether  to  say: 
Father  bought  John  and  /  roller  skates. 

or 
Father  bought  John  and  me  roUer  skates. 

When  two  or  more  persons  are  mentioned  in  a 
sentence,  there  is  sometimes  danger  of  using  / 
for  me,  he  for  him,  she  for  hety  we  for  i^,  they  for 
them, 

[no] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

If  you  are  in  doubt  as  to  which  is  the  correct 
word,  take  each  word  that  means  a  person  and 
use  it  separately  in  the  sentence.  You  will  then 
have  no  difficulty  in  deciding  which  is  right. 

Suppose  that  you  wish  to  say  that  your  father 
took  you  and  your  brother  out  for  a  walk.  You 
do  not  know  whether  to  say 

a.   Father  took  he  and  1  out  for  a  walk. 

or 
h.    Father  took  him  and  me  out  for  a  walk. 

Perhaps  a  sounds  better  to  you  than  h.  A 
is  incorrect;  h  is  correct. 

DEVICE 

Father  took  him  out  for  a  walk. 
Father  took  me  out  for  a  walk. 

Therefore:  Father  took  him  and  me  out  for  a 
walk. 

Wrong:  Father  bought  John  and  I  roller  skates. 
Right:     Father    bought    John    and    me    roller 
skates. 

Reasoning:  Father  bought  John  roller  skates. 
Father  bought  me  roller  skates. 

Wrong:  James  passed  right  by  Paul  and  I  with- 
out speaking. 

Right:  James  passed  right  by  Paul  and  me 
without  speaking. 

[in] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Reasoning:  James  passed  right  by  Paul  with- 
out speaking. 
James  passed  right  by  me  without 
speaking. 

Wrong:  Walter  asked  if  he  might  take  Kather- 

ine  and  /  to  theater. 
Right:     Walter  asked  if  he  might  take  Katherine 

and  me  to  theater. 

Reasoning:  Walter   asked   if   he   might   take 
Katherine  to  theater. 
Walter  asked  if  he  might  take  me 
to  theater. 

Wrong:  Come  to  see  Tom  and  /  soon. 
Right:     Come  to  see  Tom  and  me  soon. 

Reasoning:  Come  to  see  Tom  soon. 
Come  to  see  me  soon. 

Notice:  Come  to  see,  not  Come  and  see. 

Wrong:  When  do  you  want  to  see  Nellie  and  I 

again  for  a  rehearsal? 
Right:     When  do  you  want  to  see  Nellie  and  me 

again  for  a  rehearsal? 

Reasoning:  When  do  you  want  to  see  Nellie 
again  for  a  rehearsal? 
When  do  you  want  to  see  me  again 
for  a  rehearsal? 

[112] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

PRINCIPAL— PRINCIPLE 

Read  the  following  eight  sentences  and  decide 
which  blanks  require  principal  and  which  take 
principle.  Do  not  consult  the  answers  recorded 
below  under  "Device"  until  you  have  prepared 
this  exercise. 

1.  The of  the  school  is  ill. 

2.  The reason  for  my  absence  was  illness. 

3.    (money  in  the    bank)    multiplied  by 

the  rate  %  equals  the  interest. 

4.  The heirs  were  the  son  and  the  daugh- 

ter. 

5.  The  streets  are  Broadway  and  Fifth 

Avenue. 

6.  The    ingredient    of    the    medicine    is 

quinine. 

7.  The  character  in  the  play  dies  in  the 

last  act. 

Now  consult  the  answers,  pages  114  and  115. 
Did  you  find  that  you  had  some  of  these  wrong? 

Principal  and  principle  are  so  easy  to  master 
that  it  is  surprising  to  find  them  so  often  incor- 
rectly used. 

DEVICE 

*1.  Memorize  the  fact  now  that  the  money 
in  the  bank  is  the  principal. 

[113] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

2.  The  rest  is  easy.  If  the  word  chief  can  be 
used  instead  of  the  word  which  you  require 
(principal  or  principle),  the  word  which  you  will 
supply  is  principal.     Principal  means  chief. 

Observe  how  this  device  works  with  the  sen- 
tences at  the  beginning  of  this  lesson. 

Exercise  explained  in  detail. 

1.  The  chief  of  the  school  is  ill. 
The  principal  of  the  school  is  ill. 

2.  The  chief  reason  for  my  absence  was 

illness. 
The  principal  reason  for  my  absence 
was  illness. 

See  *    3.    Money  in  the  bank  multiplied  by  the 
rate  %  equals  the  interest. 
Principal  multiplied  by  the  rate  % 
equals  the  interest. 

4.  The  chief  heirs  were  the  son  and  the 

daughter. 
The  principal  heirs  were  the  son  and 
the  daughter. 

5.  The  chief  streets  are  Broadway  and 

Fifth  Avenue. 
The  principal  streets  are  Broadway 
and  Fifth  Avenue. 

6.  The  chief  ingredient  of  the  medicine 

is  quinine. 

[114] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

The  principal  ingredient  of  the  medi- 
cine is  quinine. 

7.  The  chief  character  in  the  play  dies 

in  the  last  act. 
The  principal  character  in  the  play 
dies  in  the  last  act. 

If  chief  cannot  be  used,  the  required  word  is 
principle. 

8.  It  was  not  the  high  price  to  which  I 

objected;    it  was  the of  profi- 
teering that  annoyed  me. 

Try  the  word  chief. 

It  was  not  the  high  price  to  which  I 
objected;  it  was  the  chief  of  profi- 
teering that  annoyed  me. 

Since  chief  cannot  be  used  here,  the  required 
word  is  principle. 

Therefore:  It  was  not  the  high  price  to  which 
I  objected;  it  was  the  principle  of  profiteering 
that  annoyed  me. 

9.  He  was  a  man  of  high . 

He  was  a  man  of  high  chief.  No  sense 
to  that. 

The  required  word  is  principle. 

Therefore:  He  was  a  man  of  high  principle, 

[115] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

10.  The  machine  works   on  the  of 

expansion. 
The  machine  works  on  the  chief  of 
expansion.     No  sense  to  that. 

The  required  word  is  principle. 
Therefore:  The  machine  works  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  expansion. 

11.  I  do  not  like  his .     This  sentence 

might  mean  chief. 
I  do  not  like  his  chief.     (  I  do  not 
like  the  principal  of  his  school.) 

The  required  word  is  principal. 
Therefore:  (a)   I  do  not  like  his  principal. 
If  chief  is  not  meant,  principal  cannot  be  used. 

(6)  I  do  not  like  his  principle. 
(The  principle  upon  which 
he  worked  when  he  closed 
the  deal.  He  was  not  strictly 
honest.) 

In  sentence  11,  a  and  h  are  correct,  depending 
upon  what  is  meant. 

Remember  that  principal  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  fact  of  whether  or  not  you  are  speaking 
or  writing  of  a  person.  Principal  person,  prin- 
cipal reason,  principal  street,  principal  character, 
principal  chapter,  principal  ingredient,  principal 
member. 

[116] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

EXERCISE  13 

See  if  you  are  more  successful  this  time  in  sup- 
plying the  correct  word.  Answers  on  page  366, 
exercise  13. 

1.  Did  you  draw  the from   the   bank? 

(See  *) 

2.  The  of  the  school  is  a  man   of   fine 

s. 

3.   s  are  rules  of  conduct. 

4.   plus  the  interest  equals  the    amount 

in  the  bank. 

5.  The store  of  the  town  burned. 

6.  The  character  in  the  story  is  an  old 

soldier. 

7.  Did  you  go  through  the  streets  when 

you  were  in  Detroit? 

8.  The hotel  is  palatial. 

9.  Is  your a  man  or  a  woman? 

10.    We  have  no  .     He  died.     No  one  has 

been  found  of  high  enough  to  take 

his  place. 

POINTERS 

Did  you  ever  stop  to  think  about  how  you  use 
the  four  words,  thisy  that,  thesCy  those?  Grammar- 
ians call  them  by  a  long  and  high-sounding  name; 
but  for  convenience  you  may  think  of  them  as 

[117] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

pointers,  because  they  are  used  to  indicate  or 
point  out  which  articles  are  meant. 

This  and  that  refer  to  one  thing. 
These  and  those  refer  to  more  than 
one  thing. 

This  points  out  one  thing  near  by. 

That  points  out  one  thing  at  a  dis- 
tance. 

These  points  out  more  than  one 
thing  near  by. 

Those  points  out  more  than  one 
thing  at  a  distance. 

This  book  is  interesting  but  that  one  I  did  not 
enjoy. 

These  candies  are  delicious  but  those  are  not 
fresh. 

Perhaps  you  are  thinking  that  there  is  nothing 
difficult  about  the  use  of  these  words.  You  are 
right;  there  is  not.  How  strange  it  is  then  that 
so  few  persons  use  them  correctly.  If  you  will 
listen  carefully  today  you  will  hear  many  persons 
use  the  word  these,  which  means  more  than  one, 
with  the  word  kind,  which  means  only  one, 

ILLUSTRATION 
Wrong:  These  kind  are  delicious. 
Right:     These  kinds  are  delicious. 
Right:     This  kind  is  delicious. 

[ii8] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  I  like  these  kind  better. 
Right:     I  like  these  kinds  better. 
Right:     I  like  this  kind  better. 

Wrong:  Do  you  want  those  kind? 
Right:     Do  you  want  those  kinds? 
Right:     Do  you  want  that  kind? 

To  say  these  kind  or  those  kind  is  as  incorrect 
as  to  say  these  nut  or  those  horse. 

NEVER  SAY  "THEM  KINDS." 

To  eliminate  these  mistakes,  originate  many 
sentences  like  the  following  and  say  them  over 
and  over  again  until  your  ear  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  the  sound  of  this  kind  and  that  kind 
and  receives  a  jolt  at  these  kind  and  those  kind. 

1.  This  kind  of  apple  is  called  Baldwin 

2.  I  never  did  care  for  these  kinds — Baldwins 

and  Kings. 

3.  That  sort  of  mistake  is  often  made. 

4.  These  sorts  of  pins  are  commonly  used. 

5.  Those  kinds  are  most  attractive. 

Notice:  In  sentence  1  you  do  not  see  the  word 
an  following  kind  of. 
In  sentence  3  you  do  not  see  the  word  a 
following  sort  of. 

Do  not  use  a  or  an  after  kind  ofy  sort  of. 

[ii9l 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  What  hind  of  a  fountain-pen  do  you  use? 
Right:     What  kind  of  fountain-pen  do  you  use? 

Wrong:  Have  you  this  sort  of  a  hinge? 
Right:     Have  you  this  sort  of  hinge? 

(Foreign  born  persons  must  be  careful  to  pro- 
nounce correctly  these  pointers  and  other  words 
containing  th.  They  should  stand  before  a 
mirror  to  see  if  the  tongue  is  visible  between  the 
teeth  as  the  word  with  th  is  pronounced;  this, 
not  ^is;  mother,  not  muddeT;  wi//z,  not  wiJ;  that, 
not  dai;  these,  not  dese.) 

Never  say :  This  here  (This  here  book  is  mine.) 

That  there 

These  here 

Those  there 

Omit  the  words  here  and  there  in  the  above 
four  expressions. 

ACCEPT— EXCEPT 

Accept  is  correct  when  you  can  use  receive  in 
its  place. 

Except  is  correct  when  you  can  use  but,  exclu- 
sive of  (which  is  the  same  as  but),  or  exclude  in  its 
place. 

1.    All ed  the  invitation. 

All  received  the  invitation. 

Therefore :     All  accepted  the  invitation. 

[120] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Note:  Accept  does  not  always  really  mean 
receive^  but  receive  can  be  substituted  for  accept. 

2.  All  me  passed  the  examina- 

tion.    (See  pages   168-172  for 
reason  for  use  of  me.) 
All  but  me  passed  the  examination. 

Therefore:    All  except  me  passed  the  examina- 
tion. 

3.  Did  you the  money? 

Did  you  receive  the  money  ."^ 

Therefore:  Did  you  accept  the  money? 

4.  K  you   this  hat,   I   should 

say  that  the  rest  are  bargains. 

If  you  exclude  this  hat,  I  should 

say  that  the  rest  are  bargains - 

Therefore:  If  you  except  this  hat,  I  should  say 
that  the  rest  are  bargains. 

5.  If  you  will  this  from  me,  I 

shall  be  pleased. 
If^you  will  receive  this  from  me,  I 
shall  be  pleased. 

Therefore:     If  you  will  accept  this  from  me,  I 
shall  be  pleased. 

Do  not  say  accept  of. 

Wrong:  I  accepted  of  his  hospitality. 
Right:     I  accepted  his  hospitality. 

[121] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  I  accepted  of  his  attentions. 
Right:     I  accepted  his  attentions. 

Be  sure  to  pronounce  accept  so  that  ac  rhymes 
with  lacky  and  except  so  that  ex  rhymes  with  rex. 
Care  in  these  details  is  all  that  makes  the  differ- 
ence between  good  English  and  poor  English 
provided  that  the  grammar  is  correct. 

EXERCISE  14 

Supply  accept  or  except  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences.  Consult  answers,  page  367,  exercise 
14. 

1.  I  should this  one  in  passing  favorable 

criticism  upon  the  lot.     It  is  the  only  one 
that  is  not  satisfactory. 

2.  I  should this  one  as  a  gift  but  it  is  too 

expensive.     You  really  cannot  afford  to 
buy  it  for  me. 

3.  All  of  the  boys John  passed  a  physical 

test. 

COMPARISON 
ABC 

One  Two  More  than  two 

old  older,  elder  oldest,  eldest 

young  younger  youngest 

tall  taller  tallest 

[122] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


many,  much    more 


most 


little 

less 

least 

beautiful 

more  beautiful 

most  beautiful 

attractive 

less  attractive 

least  attractive 

good,  well 

better 

best 

bad,  evil,  ill 

worse 

worst 

few- 

fewer 

fewest 

far 


farther,  further    farthest,  furthest 


Use  the  words  in  column  A  when  merely 
describing  and  not  comparing  an  article  with 
any  other  or  others. 

Use  those  in  column  B  in  comparing  two  ar- 
ticles. 

Use  those  in  column  C  when  comparing  one 
article  with  two  or  more  other  articles, 

RULE  I 

To  most  words  of  one  syllable  used  for  compar- 
ing, we  add  er  to  the  word  in  its  original  form 
when  comparing  two  articles;  we  add  est  to  the 
word  in  its  original  form  when  comparing  one 
article  with  two  or  more  other  articles. 

Illustration: 

1.  Lake  Erie  is  not  a  small  lake. 

2.  Lake  Erie  is  smaller  than  Lake  Ontario. 

3.  Lake  Erie  is  smaller  than  any  other  of  the 
Great  Lakes. 

4.  Lake  Erie  is  the  smallest  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

[123] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Explanation  : 

In  sentence  1  small  is  used  merely  to  describe 
the  lake. 

In  sentence  2  the  word  used  to  compare  the 
two  lakes  is  derived  from  a  word  of  one  syllable 
(small).  It  is  used  to  compare  two  lakes;  there- 
fore we  use  smaller. 

In  sentence  3  the  same  word  (smaller)  is  used 
to  compare  two  lakes,  Lake  Erie  and  any  other 
one. 

In  sentence  4  we  are  comparing  one  lake  with 
more  than  one  other;  therefore  we  use  smallest. 

RULE  2 
Some  words  of  one  syllable  have  separate  forms 
for   use   in   comparing.     (Study   the   forms   for 
many,  little,  good,  bad,  etc.,  in  columns  B  and  C.) 

Illustration  : 

John  is  a  good  mechanic. 

Tom  is  a  better  one.  (Tom  and  John  are 
compared.) 

Tom  is  the  better  of  the  two.  (This  compares 
Tom  with  John.) 

Bill  is  the  best  of  all.  (Three  persons  are  dis- 
cussed: Bill,  Tom,  and  John.) 

RULE  3 

To  some  words  of  two  syllables  we  add  er  and 
est  as  we  did  in  Rule  1. 

[124] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Illustration: 

Lake  Erie  is  shallower  than  Lake  Ontario. 
(The  syllable  er  is  added  to  shallow  because  we 
are  comparing  two  lakes.) 

Lake  Erie  is  shallower  than  any  other  of  the 
Great  Lakes.  (The  syllable  er  is  added  to  shal- 
low because  we  are  comparing  Lake  Erie  with 
"any  other"  one.) 

Lake  Erie  is  the  shallowest  of  all  the  Great 
Lakes.  (The  syllable  est  is  added  to  shallow 
because  we  are  comparing  Lake  Erie  with  all 
the  other  Great  Lakes.) 

RULE  4 

To  other  words  of  two  or  more  than  two  syllables 
we  prefix  more  and  Tnost  or  less  and  least. 

Illustration  : 

Lake  Erie  is  more  treacherous  than  Lake  Supe- 
rior because  it  is  shallow.  {More  is  used  because 
we  are  comparing  two  lakes.) 

Lake  Erie  is  more  treacherous  than  any  other 
of  the  Great  Lakes.  {More  is  used  because  we 
are  comparing  Lake  Erie  with  "any  other"  one.) 

Lake  Erie  is  the  most  treacherous  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  {Most  is  used  because  we  are  comparing 
Lake  Erie  with  all  the  other  Great  Lakes.) 

Mary  is  an  attractive  girl. 

Kate  is  less  attractive  than  Mary,  (comparing 
two) 

[125] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Jane  is  the  least  attractive  of  the  three,  (com- 
paring more  than  two) 

If  you  do  not  know  whether  to  use  er  and  est 
or  more  and  most  or  less  and  least,  look  up  the 
word  with  which  you  expect  to  use  these  endings 
or  prefixes  in  the  dictionary  and  you  will  find 
the  three  correct  forms.  Often  your  ear  will 
help  you.  You  know  that  beautifulest  does  not 
sound  well,  so  you  say  most  beautiful.  (See  note 
about  the  dictionary  at  the  end  of  this  lesson.) 

Do  not  use  words  like  those  in  column  C  when 
you  are  comparing  only  two  articles. 

Wrong:  There  are  two  brothers  both  of  whom  I 
like;  but  I  a.m.  fondest  of  the  oldest. 

Right:  There  are  two  brothers  both  of  whom  I 
like;  but  I  am  fonder  of  the  older. 

Do  not  use  er  or  est  when  you  should  use 
respectively  more  or  most. 

Wrong:  He    is    a    gracefuler    dancer    than    his 

brother. 
Right:     He  is  a  more  graceful  dancer  than  his 

brother. 

Wrong:  This  is  the  interestingest  hook  I  have 

ever  read. 
Right:     This  is  the  most  interesting  book  I  have 

ever  read. 

[126] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Never  use  double  expressions  like  these: 

Wrong:  I  am  more  tireder  today  than  I  was 
yesterday. 

Right:  I  am  more  tired  today  than  I  was  yester- 
day. 

Wrong:  This  is  the  most  beautifulest  rose  I  have 

ever  seen. 
Right:     This  is  the  most  beautiful  rose  I  have 

ever  seen. 

Do  not  use  expressions  like  more  perfect,  more 
square,  truer,  more  unique.  It  is  impossible  for 
an  article  to  be  more  than  perfect,  more  than 
square,  more  than  true,  more  than  unique.  Use 
the  expressions: 

more  nearly  perfect,  more  nearly  square, 
more  nearly  true,  and  unique. 

(Since  unique  means  only  one  of  its  kind,  it  is 
dear  that  one  does  not  say  more  nearly  unique.) 

Wrong:  This  small  grammar  is  most  unique  in 
that  it  contains  no  technical  terms. 

Right:  This  small  grammar  is  unique  in  that  it 
contains  no  technical  terms. 

Wrong:  These  tires  are  most  universally  used. 
Right:     These  tires  are  universally  used. 

[127] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Important  note  about  finding  these  words  in  your 

dictionary 

Suppose  that  you  are  writing  a  letter  and 
you  do  not  know  just  exactly  what  the  other 
two  forms  are,  for  example,  of  the  word  little. 

Looking  up  little  in  the  dictionary,  you  will 
find  printed  immediately  after  it,  less,  least. 
That  means  that  the  three  forms  are  little,  less, 
least. 

*Looking  up  the  word  long,  you  will  find  no 
other  forms.  The  omission  of  the  other  forms 
means  that  they  follow  the  rule,  (longer  and 
longest) 

*Looking  up  beautiful,  you  will  find  no  other 
forms.  The  omission  of  the  other  forms  means 
that  they  follow  the  rule,  {more  beautiful  or  less 
beautiful,  most  beautiful  or  least  beautiful) 

*The  paragraphs  having  asterisks  refer  to 
abridged  dictionaries  (small  desk  copies). 

In  an  unabridged  dictionary  (one  containing 
every  word)  the  three  forms  of  all  words  used  in 
comparison  are  given.     (There  are  exceptions.) 

If  you  are  using  either  an  unabridged  or  an 
abridged  dictionary  you  will  find  in  the  fore 
part  of  it  a  full  explanation  of  the  lexicographer's 
plan  to  save  room  by  omitting  certain  forms  in 
the  body  of  the  dictionary  and  still  give  you  the 
facts  you  need.     Be  sure  to  read  the  fore  part. 

[128] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

TROUBLESOME  COMBINATIONS 

family  is,         family  are,         committee  is, 
committee  are,  etc. 

To  decide  whether  to  use  is  or  are,  was  or 
were,  has  or  have,  in  certain  connections  (like  the 
above)  is  often  diflBcult. 

It  is  well  to  consider  what  idea  one  is  trying  to 
convey  before  making  the  decision;  e.g.,  it  is 
obvious  that  it  is  not  possible  for  one  person 
to  quarrel,  argue,  discuss,  etc.     Therefore  say: 

1.  The  family  are  quarreling. 

2.  The  committee  are  discussing  the  question. 

3.  The  board  disagree. 

4.  The  class  have  not  come  to  an  agreement. 

If  these  four  sentences  are  disturbing  to  the 
ear,  there  is  the  alternative  of  saying: 

1.  The  members  of  the  family  are  quarreling. 

2.  The  various  members  of  the  committee 
are  discussing  the  question. 

3.  The  individuals  of  the  board  disagree. 

4.  The  pupils  of  the  class  have  not  come  to 
an  agreement. 

To  say,  ''The  family  has  moved  to  New  York,*' 
is  correct. 

[129] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

To  say,  "The  family  have  moved  to  New 
York,'*  is  correct. 

Suppose  you  were  going  to  say  nothing  more 
about  the  family  than  the  fact  of  the  removal 
to  New  York.  Has  moved  would  then  not  be 
objectionable.  But  suppose  you  wished  to  say, 
*'They  are  boarding  with  friends."  It  would 
then  be  better  to  say  have  moved  in  the  first  sen- 
tence. Otherwise  to  be  consistent  you  would 
have 

The  family  has  moved  to  New  York. 
Wrong:  It  is  boarding  with  friends. 

The  family  have  moved  to  New  York. 
Right:     They  are  boarding  with  friends. 

When  in  doubt  as  to  what  word  to  use  with 
words  like  family,  board,  committee,  etc.,  the  safe 
way  is  to  use  the  form  meaning  more  than  one 
because  the  speaker  may  always  present  the 
argument  that  he  was  thinking  of  the  individ- 
uals of  the  family,  the  board,  the  committee, 
etc. 

These  are  correct: 

1.  The  family  (as  a  whole)  lives  next  door. 

2.  The  family  are  arguing  over  the  will.     (One 

cannot  argue.) 

3.  The  committee  is  in  session. 

[130I 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

4.  The  committee  are  now  discussing  the  mat- 

ter.    (One  cannot  discuss.) 

5.  The  board  (as  a  whole)  is  pleased  with  the 

ser\'ice. 

6.  The  board  are  quarreling  over  the  money. 

(One  cannot  quarrel.) 

7.  The  session  are  in  conference.     (One  cannot 

confer.) 

DANGER! 

Sentences  that  begin  with  there,  here,  over  there, 
over  here,  and  similar  expressions 

When  you  begin  a  sentence  with  any  one  of 
the  above  expressions  be  careful  of  the  words 
which  follow.  If  you  are  not  sure  that  your  sen- 
tence is  correct,  transpose  the  parts  to  discover 
your  error. 

Wrong:  There  comes  the  boys. 

Transposition:     The  boys  comes,     (wrong) 
Error  corrected:   The  boys  come. 

Therefore:  There  come  the  boys. 

Wrong:  Here  comes  father  and   mother 

now. 
Transposition:     Father      and      mother      comes, 

(wrong) 
Error  corrected:  Father  and  mother  come, 

[131] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Therefore:  Here  come  father  and  mother  now. 

Wrong:  There  sits  John  and  Mary  way 

up  on  the  hill. 
Transposition:    John  and  Mary  sits,     (wrong) 
Error  corrected:  John  and  Mary  sit. 

Therefore:  There  sit  John  and  Mary  way  up 
on  the  hill. 

Wrong:  There  was  three  of  us  at  the 

dinner. 
Transposition:    Three  of  us  was  at  the  dinner. 

(wrong) 
Error  corrected:  Three  of  us  were  at  the  dinner. 

Therefore:  There  were  three  of  us  at  the  dinner. 

Wrong:  There's  been  three  agents  at  the 

door  this  morning. 

Transposition:  Three  agents  has  been  at  the 
door  this  morning. 

Error  corrected:  Three  agents  have  been  at  the 
door  this  morning. 

Therefore:  There  have  been  three  agents  at  the 
door  this  morning. 

Wrong:  There's  a  man  and  a  woman  sit- 

ting on  the  steps. 

Transposition:  A  man  and  a  woman  is  sitting, 
(wrong) 

[132] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Error  corrected:  A  man  and  a  woman  are  sitting 
on  the  steps. 

Therefore:  There  are  a  man  and  a  woman  sit- 
ting on  the  steps. 

Wrong:  Here's  your  books. 

Transposition:    Your  books  is.     (wrong) 
Error  corrected:  Your  books  are. 

Therefore:  Here  are  your  books. 

Wrong:  Here's  two  letters  for  you. 

Transposition:    Two  letters  is  here,     (wrong) 
Error  corrected:  Two  letters  are  here. 

Therefore:  Here  are  two  letters  for  you. 

Wrong:  There  has  been  both  trouble  and 

expense  put  into  this  piece  of 
work. 

Transposition:    Both  trouble   and   expense   has 

been    put    into    this    piece    of 

work,     (wrong) 
Error  corrected:  Both  trouble  and  expense  have 

been    put    into    this    piece    of 

work. 

Therefore:  There  have  been  both  trouble  and 
expense  put  into  this  piece  of  work. 

[133] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Wrong:  There  goes  the  boys. 

Transposition:     The  boys  goes,     (wrong)     ^ 
Error  corrected:  The  boys  go. 

Therefore:  There  go  the  boys. 
SHALL— WILL 

The  correct  use  of  shall  and  will  is  more  often 
ignored  than  that  of  any  other  word  in  the  Eng- 
lish language.  Many  other  words  are  used  incor- 
rectly by  the  illiterate  but  shall  and  will  seem  to 
be  slighted  by  literate  and  illiterate  alike. 

If  you  say — I  icUl  certainly  catch  cold  in  this 
draught — you  appear  ridiculous  because  will 
used  with  /  in  this  sentence  means  that  you  are 
determined  to  catch  cold.  Did  you  ever  set 
your  heart  upon  catching  cold?  You  should 
have  said, — I  shall  certainly  catch  cold  in  this 
draught. 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

Shall  and  vrlll  are  used  to  express  actions  which 
are  to  occur  in  the  future. 

Future  is  a  term  referring  to  that  which  has  not 
yet  happened. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  future:  simple  and 
involved. 

Simple  future  is  future  which  does  not  express 
determination,  threat,  promise. 

[134] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Involved  future  is  future  which  expresses  de- 
termination, threat,  promise. 

(Do  not  think  that  you  are  being  plunged  into 
technical  English.  The  terms  used  on  this  page 
have  the  same  meaning  in  this  book  that  they 
have  in  ordinary  conversation.) 

We  use  both  shdl  and  will  in  expressing  simple 
future. 

We  use  both  shall  and  mill  in  expressing  in- 
volved future. 

When  shall  is  correct  in  expressing  simple 
future,  will  is  correct  in  involved  future. 

When  will  is  correct  in  expressing  simple 
future,  shall  is  correct  in  involved  future. 

Illustration  : 

I  shall  go  to  New  York  next  week. 

That  is  simple  future.  I  am  not  promising.  I 
am  expressing  mere  intention  to  go.  I  may 
change  iny  mind. 

I  will  go  to  New  York  next  week. 

That  is  determination.     It  is  also  a  promise. 

Deduction: 

Using  shall  with  I  indicates  simple  future. 

Using  will  with  /  indicates  determinatioa, 
threat,  promise. 

The  boys  (or  they)  vrill  enter  college  next  fall, 
(simple  future) 

[135] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

The  boys  (or  they)  shall  enter  college  next 
fall,     (determination  on  the  part  of  the  parents) 

You  toill  undoubtedly  study  law.  (simple 
future) 

You  shall  study  law.     (determination) 

The  children  (they)  will  not  go  to  school 
tomorrow,     (simple  future) 

The  children  (they)  shall  not  go  to  school 
tomorrow,     (determination) 

*Mr.  Jones  (he)  will  pay  the  bill  tomorrow, 
(simple  future) 

**  Mr.  Jones  (he)  shall  pay  the  bill  tomorrow, 
(determination  or  promise) 

*Mr.  Jones  toill  pay  the  bill  tomorrow  is  prob- 
ably the  remark  of  his  bookkeeper  to  a  person 
whom  Mr.  Jones  owes.  She  is  merely  stating 
the  fact  that  she  thinks  that  he  will  pay.  It  is 
not  a  promise. 

**Mr.  Jones  shall  pay  the  hill  tomorrow  means 
that  the  person  making  the  remark  knows  that 
Mr.  Jones  intends  to  pay  and  will  do  so;  and 
besides  this  element  of  promise,  it  may  have  an 
element  of  determination,  showing  that  the 
speaker  will  see  that  Mr.  Jones  does  pay. 

SHALL— WILL    IN    A    STATEMENT 

Note:  A  statement   is   a  sentence  that  tells  a 
fact.     We  get  wool  from  sheep. 

[136] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

A  question  is  a  sentence  that  asks  in- 
formation. Do  we  get  wool  from 
sheep? 

TABULATION 

Simple  Future 

One  More  than  one 

Group  1  Group  2 

a.  I  shall  go.  We  shall  go. 

b.  Thou  wilt  go.  You  will  go. 

c.  He  will  go.   ) 

d.  She  will  go.  >  They  will  go. 

e.  It  wi/Z  go.     ) 

Involved  Future 


Determination,  Threat,  Promise 

One  More  than  one 

Group  3  Group  4 

a.  I  will  go.  We  will  go. 

6.  Thou  ^/zaft  go.  You  shall  go. 

c.  He  shall  go.    ) 

c?.  She  shall  go.  >•  They  shall  go. 

e.  It  5/ia^/  go.     ) 

Notice  that  line  a,  group  1,  and  line  a,  group  2, 
employ  the  same  word — shall. 

Notice  that  all  the  other  lines  in  these  groups 
employ — will, 

[137] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Notice  that  line  a,  group  3,  and  line  a,  group  4, 
employ  the  same  word — will. 

Notice  that  all  the  other  lines  in  these  groups 
employ — shall. 

Notice  that  line  a,  groups  1  and  2,  employs — 
shall. 

Notice  that  line  a,  groups  3  and  4,  employs — 
will. 

Notice  that  all  other  lines,  groups  1  and  2, 
employ — ivill. 

Notice  that  all  other  lines,  groups  3  and  4, 
employ — shall. 

DEVICE 

If  you  thoroughly  master  line  a  in  groups  1  and 
2  you  will  be  able  to  deduce  the  other  lines 
because  they  are  the  exact  converse.  This 
makes  the  information  about  shall  and  loill  in  a 
statement  easy  to  remember. 

The  following  illustrate  all  the  uses  of  shall 
and  loill  in  a  statement.  See  if  you  understand 
why  shall  or  will  is  used  in  each.  If  you  do  not, 
refer  to  the  tabulation. 

Simple  future 

(future   which   does   not   express   determination, 
threat,  promise) 

[138] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


I  shall  soon  go  to  New 
York. 

Thou   icilt  soon  go  to 

New  York. 
He  will  soon  go  to  New 

York. 
She    will    soon    go    to 

New  York. 
It  icill  soon  go  to  New 

York. 


We    shall    soon    go    to 
New  York. 

You    tcill    soon    go   to 
New  York. 


They  will  soon 
New  York. 


go  to 


Involved  future 
Determinaiion 

I  icill  go  whether  you     We  will  go;  we  are  de- 
approve  or  not.  termined. 

Thou  shall  go;  I  insist.     You  shall  go;  I  insist. 

He  shall  go  to  school; 
the  law  compels  him 
to  do  so. 

She  shall  go  for  the 
same  reason. 

It  shall  go  whether  you 
go  or  not. 

Threat 

I  will  sue  you  if  you  do  We  will  sue  you  if  you 

not  pay  the  rent.  do  not  pay. 

Thou    shall    suffer    if  You  shall  suffer  if  you 

thou  deceivest  me.  are  dishonest. 

[  139] 


They  shall  go  even  if  I 
have  to  borrow  the 
money. 


Pitfalls  in  English 


He    shall    move    if    he 

does  not  pay  the  rent. 
She  shall  move  if  she 

does  not  pay  the  rent. 
It  shall  go  out  of  the 

house      unless      you 

obey. 


They  shall  move  if  they 
do  not  pay. 


Promise 

I  will  present  you  with  We  will  present  candy 

a  book.  to  each  child. 

Thou  shall  reward  thy  You  shall  take  a  pres- 

friend.  ent  to  him. 

He  shall  help  you  to- 


morrow. 
She    shall    carry    your 

package. 
It  shall  be  done  for  you. 


They  shall  go  with  us 
to  your  home. 


Notice  that  the  groups  under  determination, 
threat,  and  promise  are  alike  in  their  uses  of  shall 
and  will. 

Notice  that  the  groups  under  determination, 
threat,  and  promise  are  the  converse  of  the  group 
under  simple  future. 

SHALL— WILL  IN  QUESTIONS 

In  introducing  the  rule  for  shall  and  will  in 
questions,  most  grammars  say:  *'In  a  question 

[140] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

use  shall  or  will  according  as  it  is  used  in  the 
reply."  That  statement  is  not  of  enough  assist- 
ance to  the  student.  The  following  explains 
thoroughly  the  line  of  thought,  and  clearly  shows 
that  the  questioner  must  quickly  think  out  the 
answer  first. 

This  is  an  amusing  feature  of  the  rule  for  shall 
and  loilL  It  will  make  you  think  of  a  game  of 
cards  provided  that  you  play  cards.  Suppose 
that  your  opponent  leads  a  spade  to  you.  You 
are  expected  to  return  a  spade  to  him.  It  is 
the  same  in  the  game  of  shall  and  will  in  ques- 
tions. If  the  one  who  asks  the  question  leads 
shall,  the  one  who  replies  should  return  shall  in 
the  answer — that  is  if  he  uses  either  of  the  two 
words  in  the  answer.  If  the  one  who  asks  the 
question  uses  will,  the  one  who  answers  will 
return  will  in  the  reply.     Now  watch! 

1.  Shall  you  soon  return  to  New  York.^     I  shall. 

2.  Shall  you  graduate  this  year?     I  shall  try 

to  do  so. 

3.  Shall  he  report  for  work  Monday.^     He  shaU. 

(determination) 

4.  Shall  she  go  now?     Yes;  she  shall,     (deter- 

mination) 

5.  Will  you  help  me.'^     I  wi.lL 

6.  Will  you  lend  me  your  pencil?     I  vnll  not, 

because  I  need  it  for  my  work. 

[141] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Carefully  follow  the  reasoning  below  for  the 
preceding  expressions  before  trying  to  supply  shall 
and  will  in  the  exercise  at  the  end  of  this  lesson. 

REASONING 

Remember  that  the  one  asking  the  question 
must  first  decide  what  the  reply  will  be.  The 
reply  to  sentence  1  will  be  either  /  shall  or  I  shall 
not  because  a  promise  is  not  required.  The  per- 
son asking  the  question  simply  asked  what  is 
the  other's  intention.  The  answer  requires  the 
word  shall;  then  the  question  will  contain  the 
word  shall. 

In  sentence  2  a  promise  is  not  demanded.  No 
one  ever  promises  to  graduate.  The  most  he 
can  do  is  try  hard  to  graduate;  but  he  may  fail 
at  the  last  moment.  A  promise  would  be  I  will. 
This  answer  will  not  be  a  promise;  therefore  the 
answer  will  be  /  shall.  The  question  will  then 
be  Shall  you? 

Sentence  3  can  best  be  explained  by  supposing 
that  there  are  three  persons  involved :  a  prospec- 
tive employer,  a  mother,  and  her  son.  The 
employer  has  agreed  to  employ  the  son.  The 
mother  wishes  to  know  whether  the  boy  is  to 
begin  work  the  following  Monday.  The  em- 
ployer obviously  is  the  one  to  decide  and  his 
answer  is  in  the  nature  of  a  determination.  The 
employer's  answer  will  begin  with  the  word  he, 

[142] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

To  express  determination  with  the  word  he^  use 
shall.  Therefore  the  question  will  be  Shall  he 
report  for  work  Monday? 

(Sentence  3  again)  Suppose  that  I,  a  fourth 
person,  a  friend  of  the  mother,  am  talking  to 
the  mother.  In  the  course  of  conversation  she 
tells  me  that  her  son  has  found  a  position.  I, 
wishing  to  know  how  soon  her  son  will  begin  his 
new  work,  ask,  "Will  he  report  for  work  soon?" 
The  answer  now  will  not  be  a  promise  to  me;  it 
will  express  merely  the  boy's  intention.  The 
answer  (thought  out  first  and  very  quickly, 
remember)  will  be.  He  will.  The  question  then 
will  have  to  contain  will.  Will  he  report  for  work 
Monday? 

The  reasoning  for  number  3  applies  to  num- 
b^  4  (involved  future). 

Numbers  5  and  6  are  questions  requiring  prom- 
ises in  the  replies.  Each  reply  begins  with  /. 
With  Z  in  a  promise  we  use  will.  Therefore  will 
is  used  in  both  of  these  questions. 

Here  is  an  easy  way  to  decide  between  the  use 
of  shall  or  will  in  a  question. 

If  the  answer  is  to  express  determination, 
threat,  promise,  with  /  and  we  required  in  the 
answer,  use  will  in  the  question. 

If  the  answer  is  not  to  express  determination, 
threat,  promise,  with  I  and  we  in  the  answer, 
use  shall  in  the  question. 

[1431 


Pitfalls  in  English 

If  the  answer  is  to  express  determination, 
threat,  promise,  with  thou,  he,  she,  it,  you,  they 
in  the  answer,  use  shall  in  the  question. 

If  the  answer  is  not  to  express  determination, 
threat,  promise,  with  thou,  he,  she,  you,  they  in 
the  answer,  use  will  in  the  question. 

Note:  Do  not  think  that  shall  or  will  must 
always  appear  in  the  answer  to  a  question  con- 
taining shall  or  will;  but  if  shall  or  will  is  con- 
tained in  the  answer,  it  should  be  correctly  used. 
If  the  person  asking  the  question  uses  the  wrong 
word  {will  for  shall  or  shall  for  will),  the  one 
replying  may,  if  he  knows  how,  use  the  correct 
word.  His  correct  use  will  not  be  noticed  by 
the  questioner;  hence  he  will  not  be  considered 
rude. 

The  greatest  number  of  mistakes  in  the  use  of 
shall  and  will  is  made  in  sentences  like  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Wrong 

A 

1.  I  will  need  an  umbrella. 

2.  Will  I  go  to  lunch  now,  Mr.  Billings? 

3.  Will  you  go  to  Europe  next  summer? 

4.  We  will  certainly  take  cold  here. 

5.  We  will  miss  the  train. 

6.  I  will  be  too  warm  in  these  clothes. 

[  144  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Right 
B 

1.  I  shall  need  an  umbrella. 

2.  Shall  I  go  to  lunch  now,  Mr.  Billings .f* 

3.  Shall  you  go  to  Europe  next  summer? 

4.  We  shall  certainly  take  cold  here. 

5.  We  shall  miss  the  train. 

6.  I  shall  be  too  warm  in  these  clothes. 

Sentence  1,  group  A,  is  wrong  because  /  wUl 
expresses  determination.  Is  there  any  one  who 
is  determined  to  need  an  umbrella.'* 

Sentence  2,  group  A,  is  wrong.  It  is  never 
correct  to  say  Will  I, 

Sentence  3,  group  A,  is  wrong,  because  Will 
you  would  require  I  will  in  the  answer.  /  will 
expresses  a  promise  and  you  are  not  expecting 
the  person  to  w^hom  you  are  speaking  to  give 
you  a  promise  that  he  will  go. 

Sentence  4,  group  A,  is  wrong  because  We  will 
means  that  we  are  determined  to  take  cold;  no 
one  is  anxious  to  do  that. 

Sentence  5,  group  A,  is  wrong  because  We  will 
means  that  we  are  determined  to  miss  the  train. 
Most  of  us  wish  to  catch  the  train. 

Sentence  6,  group  A,  is  wrong  because  I  will 
means  that  I  am  determined  to  be  too  warm. 

[145] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

EXERCISE  15 

Supply  shall  or  will  in  each  of  the  following. 
Consult  answers  on  page  367,  exercise  15. 

1.  you  go  swimming  this  morning.^ 

2.  you  travel  all  next  year? 

3.  you  please  teach. me  how  to  knit? 

4.  you  help  me  to  clean  house? 

5.  I  do  it  this  way? 

6.  he  go  on  duty  at  once? 

7.  Kate  do  your  marketing  for  you? 

8.  Kate  do  your  marketing  for  you?     I'll 

gladly  lend  her  to  you. 

9.  we  assist  you? 

10.   my  son  call  for  you? 

11.    we  go  now? 

12.  We drown,  I  fear,  because  there  is  no 

one  in  sight  to  assist  us. 

13.  He obey  you;  I see  to  that. 

14.  They call    tomorrow;    I    promise    you 

that. 

15.    I  telephone  to  you  about  it? 

16     John  and  I  (we)  assist  you. 

17.  May  (she)  soon  leave  the  city. 

18.  Thou not  steal. 

19.  You not  go. 

20.  I call  on  him  tomorrow  if  you  wish. 

[146] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

CONTRACTIONS  OF  SHALL  NOT  AND  WILL  NOT 

I'll  means  I  shall  or  will 

he'll  means  he  shall  or  will 

she'll  means  she  shall  or  will 

it'll  means  it  shall  or  will 

we'll  means  we  shall  or  will 

vou'll  means  vou  shall  or  will 

they'll  means  they  shall  or  will 

Remember  that  it  is  inelegant  to  use  contrac- 
tions in  any  but  familiar  speech  or  wTiting.  See 
page  342. 

SHOULD— WOULD 

All  grammars  inform  you  that  should  and 
would  follow  the  rules  for  shall  and  will.  This 
book  goes  more  deeply  into  the  matter  showing 
you  how  to  apply  the  rule  for  shall  and  will  when 
deciding  whether  to  use  should  or  would. 

TO  REVIEW  SHALL  AND  WILL  IS   HELPFUL 

Suppose  that  I  wish  to  say  that  if  I  am  in\nted 
to  the  wedding  I  shall  go.  I  have  framed  the 
sentence  so  that  perhaps  I  am  obliged  to  use 
either  should  or  would  and  I  must  think  which  is 
correct.  I  reason  it  out  in  terms  of  shall  and 
vnll, 

[147] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

a.  I   shall   go   if   I   am   invited.     (I   am   not 

promising.) 

b.  If  I  were  in  your  place  and  invited  to  the 

wedding,  I  think  I  should  go. 

In  b  should  is  used  because  in  a  shall  is  used. 

c.  Perhaps  you  will  go  if  you  are  invited. 

d.  I  suppose  you  would  go  if  you  were  invited. 

In  d  would  is  used  because  in  c  will  is  used. 

e.  He   will   probably    go   if   he   receives    an 

invitation. 

f.  He  would  probably  go  if  he  received  an 

invitation. 

In  f  would  is  used  because  in  e  will  is  used. 

g.  She  will  go  if  she  is  invited. 

h.    She  would  go  if  she  were  invited. 

In  h  would  is  used  because  in  g  will  is  used. 

i.     The   clock    (it)    will  stop   if  you   do  not 

wind  it. 
j.    The  clock  (it)  would  stop  if  it  were  not 

wound. 

In  j  would  is  used  because  in  i  will  is  used. 

k.   I  will  not  do  it.     (determination) 

1.     I  would  (say  it  emphatically)  not  do  it. 

In  1  would  is  used  because  in  k  will  is  used. 

[148] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


Group  A  does  not  express  determination 


Group  A 


I  should 
thou  wovldst 
he  would 
she  would 
.  it  would 


We  should 
You  would 

They  would 


Group  B  expresses  determination 

We  would 
You  should 


Group  B 


''I  would 
Thou  should st 
he  should 
she  should 

.it  should 


They  should 


Do  not  interpret  should  to  mean  ow^/i^  fo. 
Should,  meaning  ought  to,  will  be  found  farther 
along  in  the  lesson. 

SHOULD  AND  WOULD  IN  QUESTIONS 

Use  should  and  would  in  questions  according 
as  you  expect  should  and  would  in  the  replies. 
Figure  this  out  from  shall  and  will. 

Illustration 

you  like  to  have  a  party  next  Wednes- 
day?     (should-would) 

First  try  the  rule  for  shall  and  will  in  questions. 

If  the  answer  implies  shall,  shall  appears  in  the 
question. 

[149] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

If  the  answer  implies  willy  will  appears  in  the 
question. 

The  answer  to  this  question  will  begin  with  J. 

I  shall  like  to  have  a  party  next  Wednesday. 

Therefore  the  answer  with  should  or  would 
should  be 

I  should  like  to  have  a  party  next  Wednesday. 

Therefore:  Should  you  like  to  have  a  party 
next  Wednesday? 

This  all  sounds  very  complicated  but  thought 
is  quicker  than  speech,  and  you  will  find  after  a 
little  effort  that  you  can  decide  upon  the  correct 
word  with  no  difficulty.  The  feeling  of  satis- 
faction which  will  result  is  truly  worth  the 
effort. 

The  following  are  correct: 

1.  How  should  you  like  to  be  a  doctor?     (I 

should  like) 

2.  I  should  like  to  be  a  minister  better  than  to 

be  a  doctor. 

3.  How  would  he  enjoy  going  to  the  theater? 

(He  would  enjoy) 

4.  He  icould  enjoy  it  very  much. 

5.  Should  you  care  to  take  this  position? 

6.  I  should  not;  in  fact  I  just  would  not.     I  am 

determined  about  that. 

7.  Should  you  like  to  go  to  Boston  with  me? 

(I  shoidd  like) 

[150] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

*8.    He  should  not  do  that,     (ought  not) 
9.    She  shouldn't  do  that;  I'll  see  that  she  stops 
it  at  once,     (determination) 

10.  I  would  not  go.     (determination) 

The  greatest  number  of  mistakes  is  made  in 
sentences  like  the  following: 

11.  How  should  you  like  to  go  to  New  York.'' 

(Many  persons  say  would.) 

Should  is  correct  because  the  answer  is  to  be 
I  should  like. 

We  say  I  shall  like  going  or  I  shall  enjoy  going. 
Remember  to  think  out  the  use  of  should  and 
would  through  the  rules  for  shall  and  will.  Sen- 
tence 11  is  a  question.  The  answer  will  begin 
with  /.     Therefore:  I  should  like 

Therefore:  How  should  you  like  to  go  to  New 
York? 

*Should  in  the  sense  of  ought  to  is  correct  with 
7,  thou,  he,  she,  it,  we,  you,  they. 

I  should  go.  We  should  go. 

Thou  shouldst  go.  You  should  go. 

He  should  go.   ) 

She  should  go.  >■  They  should  go. 

It  should  go.     ) 

Would  in  the  sense  of  custom  or  habit  is  correct 
with  I,  thou,  he,  she,  it,  we,  you,  they. 

[151] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

When  I  was  young  I  would  often  go  swimming. 

When  thou  wast  young  thou  wouldst  often  go 
swimming. 

When  he  was  young  he  would  often  go  swim- 
ming. 

When  she  was  young  she  would  often  go  swim- 
ming. 

When  it  was  young  it  would  bloom  daily. 


When  we  were  young  we  would  often  go  swim- 
ming. 

When  you  were  young  you  would  often  go  swim- 
ming. 

When  they  were  young  they  would  often  go 
swimming. 


MAY— CAN 

These  little  words  correctly  used  add  tone  to 
one's  speech.  The  difference  between  them  is 
so  simple  to  understand  that  there  is  no  excuse 
for  using  them  incorrectly. 

May  implies  permission  and  possibility. 
Can  implies  ability  to  do. 

[152] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Right 

1.  John,  may  I  go  with  you? 

2.  Mrs.   Smith,   may   Mary   go   with   me   to 

school? 

3.  Uncle  John,  may  I  borrow  your  pencil? 

4.  I  may  go  if  it  does  not  rain. 

5.  It  may  rain  by  tonight. 

6.  The  lawyer  may  refuse  to  take  the  case. 

In  sentences  1-3  permission  is  sought.  Can 
would  have  been  incorrect. 

In  sentences  4-6  possibility  is  implied. 

CAN  I? 

One  seldom  has  occasion  to  use  can  with  /  or 
we  in  a  question.  How  can  anybody  tell  you, 
the  reader  of  this  lesson,  what  you  can  do  (what 
you  have  the  ability  to  do)?  Let  us  suppose 
that  you  say,  '^Can  I  open  the  window?"  The 
one  whom  you  ask  does  not  know  whether  at 
that  particular  moment  you  have  or  have  not 
the  strength  to  open  it;  he  cannot  tell  you 
whether  you  can  or  cannot.  For  the  same 
reason 

It  is  Wrong  to  Say 

7.  Can  I  close  the  door? 

8.  Can  I  come  to  see  you? 

[153] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

9.    Can  I  sing  for  you? 
10.    I  ca7i  go  with  you  (meaning  I  have  per- 
mission to  go). 

31  ay  should  have  been  used  in  sentences  7-10 
in  order  to  express  permission. 

From  the  facts  about  may  and  can  in  the  preced- 
ing section,  you  will  see  the  reason  for  the  reply 
of  the  mother  in  the  following  conversation: 

Daughter:  Mother,  can  I  swim  today? 
Mother:  Yes,  you  can;  but  you  may  not.     It  is 
Sunday. 

If  may  or  can  is  to  appear  in  the  reply,  the 
reply  will  contain  whichever  word  (may  or  can) 
was  used  in  the  question  (provided  the  ques- 
tioner has  used  care). 

Question:  May  I  go? 
Answer:  You  7nay. 

Question:  Can  the  baby  walk  yet? 
Answer:  Yes,  he  takes  a  few  steps.     He  can 
walk. 

Do  not  think  that  the  word  may  or  can  must 
always  appear  in  the  reply.  Just  Yes  or  No;  I 
think  so;  I  think  not;  No,  not  yet;  and  other 
answers  may  be  used. 

When  you  see  the  mark  ** sterling"  on  silver, 
you  know  that  it  is  of  the  finest  quality. 

[154] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Such  distinguishing  marks  there  are  in  your 
speech  either  to  call  attention  to  your  good  Eng- 
lish or  to  expose  the  points  in  which  you  are 
weak. 

IDIOSYNCRASIES 

The  following  are  worth  consideration: 
Use  as  twice  in  making  an  afl&rmative  com- 
parison. 

Wrong:  1  am  just  so  tired  as  I  can  be. 
Right:     I  am  just  as  tired  as  I  can  be. 

Use  so  once  and  as  once  in  making  a  negative 
comparison. 

Wrong:  You  are  not  as  tall  as  he.     (Not  is  the 

sign  of  the  negative.) 
Right:     You  are  not  so  tall  as  he. 

When  you  use  not  only  follow  it  by  but  also  or 
also;  not  by  but. 

Wrong:  He  is  not  only  an  artist;   but  he  is  a 

writer. 
Right:     He  is  not  only  an  artist;  but  he  is  also  a 

wTiter. 
Right:     He  is  not  only  an  artist;  but  also  he  is  a 

writer. 
Right:     He  is  not  only  an  artist;  he  is  also  a 

writer. 

[155] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

The  reason  for  not  using  but  without  also  in 
the  preceding  sentences  is  interesting.  You  know 
that  the  word  but  always  conveys  a  sort  of  nega- 
tive, disparaging,  or  contradictory  idea. 

Suppose  you  say:  Mary  is  an  attractive  girl, 
but— 

The  listener  knows  at  once  that  you  are  going 
to  reduce  this  compliment  in  some  way — per- 
haps by  saying  that  her  teeth  are  poor  or  her 
hair  is  not  a  good  color;  but  when  you  add  the 
word  also,  you  are  immediately  adding  to  the 
force  of  your  previous  section  of  sentence,  even 
if  the  previous  section  is  uncomplimentary. 

Complimentary:       Mary  is  an  attractive  girl,  but 

she  is  also  very  intelligent. 

Better:  Mary  is  not  only  an  attractive 

girl,  but  she  is  also  very  in- 
telligent. 

Uncomplimentary:  Mary  is  not  only  unattractive, 

but  she  is  also  dull. 
Mary  is  unattractive  in  ap- 
pearance,   but    she    has    a 
pleasing  manner. 

Notice  in  the  last  sentence  the  way  in  which 
bid  without  also  detracts  from  the  force  of  Mary's 
wnattractiveness,  instead  of  adding  to  it.  In 
other  words,  but  without  also  introduces  an  ex- 

[156] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

pression  contradictory  to  the  previous  expres- 
sion. 

AS— LIKE 

The  use  of  like  for  as,  as  if,  as  though,  is  very 
common  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  serious  error. 

Wrong:  Do  like  I  do. 
Right:     Do  as  I  do. 

Wrong:  I  feel  like  I  have  been  dra^Ti  through  a 

knot-hole. 
Right:     I  feel   as   though   I   have   been   drawn 

through  a  knot-hole. 

Wrong:  He  feels  like  he  ought  to  have  more  pay. 
Right:     He  feels  as  though  he  ought  to  have 
more  pay. 

Wrong:  It  looks  like  it  would  rain. 
Right:     It  looks  as  though  it  would  rain. 

Wrong:  It  looks  like  John  will  get  the  position. 
Right:     It  looks  as  though  John   will   get  the 
position. 

The  following  show  the  correct  use  of  like: 

1.  She  looks  like  me.     (resembles) 

2.  It  smells  like  a  rose,     (resembles) 

3.  It  tastes  like  vinegar,     (resembles) 

4.  Doesn't  that  sound  like  her?     (resemble) 

[157] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

The  following  show  the  correct  use  of  as: 

1.  I  feel  as  he  does  about  the  matter. 

2.  He  tasted  the  wine  as  you  did — on  the  sly. 

3.  It  sounds  as  though  you  are  angry. 

4.  She    looks    as    he    did    before    he    left    this 

climate — pale. 

5.  I  do  as  I  please  in  my  own  home. 

Observe : 

As  is  often  followed  by  a  complete  statement. 

^5  is  often  followed  by  /,  he,  she,  it,  we,  you, 
they. 

Like  is  never  followed  by  a  complete  statement. 

Like  is  never  followed  by  I,  he,  she,  we,  they. 

Like  is  often  followed  by  me,  him,  her,  it,  us, 
you,  them. 

TWO  NEGATIVES 

Use  care  in  including  the  following  words  in 
your  conversation: 

no,  not,  none,  hardly,  only,  and  but. 

Two  negatives  make  an  affirmative.  If  you 
say:  I  have  not  no  time,  you  are  saying  that  you 
have  some  time. 

Wrong:  I  ain't  got  no  time. 
Wrong:  I  haven't  got  no  time. 
Wrong:  I  haven't  no  time. 

[158] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Right:     I  haven't  any  time. 
Right:     I  have  no  time. 

Wrong:  I  haven't  none. 
Right:     I  have  none. 

Wrong:  I  couldn't  hardly  manage  the  horse. 
Right:     I  could  hardly  manage  the  horse. 

Wrong:  I  won't  keep  you  but  a  minute. 
Right:     I  will  keep  you  but  a  minute. 

Wrong:  I  didn't  have  only  five  cents. 
Right:     I  had  only  five  cents. 

LEARN— TEACH 

The  person  who  imparts  the  knowledge  teaches 
the  one  who  obtains  the  knowledge. 
The  teacher  teaches.     The  pupil  learns. 

Present  Past  Ing  form  With  has, 

have,  had 
teach  taught  teaching  taught 

learn  learned  learning  learned 

Wrong:  She  learned  me  how  to  knit. 
Right:     She  taught  me  how  to  knit. 

Miss   Sutherland   teaches    in    Lincoln 
School. 
Right:       -  She  taught  there  when  I  was  a  child. 
She  is  teaching  there  now. 
.She  has  taught  many  years. 

[159] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Right: 


I  learn  a  poem  every  week. 

I  learned  "The  Builders"  last  week. 

This  week  I  am  learning  "The  Psalm 

of  Life." 
.1  have  learned  twenty  poems  this  term. 


OFF 

Do  not  say  off  of. 
Omit  of. 

He  jumped  off  of  the  horse. 
I  got  off  of  the  car  at  Madison  Avenue. 
Wrong:     ■  The  man  fell  off  of  the  roof. 

He  took  the  book  off  of  the  desk  with- 
out permission. 

He  jumped  off  the  horse. 
I  got  off  the  car  at  Madison  Avenue. 
Right:       ■  The  man  fell  off  the  roof. 

He  took  the  book  off  the  desk  without 
permission. 


INDISCRIMINATE  USE  OF  IT 

These  are  correct: 
It  is  raining.        It  is  snowing.         It  is  pleasant. 

These  are  incorrect: 
1.   It  says  in  the  paper  that  it  will  rain. 

[i6o] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

2.  In  the  notice  it  says  that  the  games  will  begin 

at  four  o'clock. 

3.  Does  it  say  Broadway  on  that  car? 

These  are  correct: 

1.  The  paper  states  that  it  will  rain. 

2.  The  notice  states  that  the  games  will  begin 

at  four  o'clock. 

3.  Is  that  car  marked  Broadway? 

EXPRESSIONS  LIKE  AS  WELL  AS, 
TOGETHER  WITH,  IN  ADDITION  TO 

Such  expressions  as:  as  well  as,  together  im'ih, 
toith,  in  addition  to,  including,  no  less  than,  do 
not  affect  the  rest  of  the  words  in  the  sentence. 

Illustration  : 

1.  The  girl  was  walking  in  the  park. 

(one  person) 

2.  The   girl   with  her   mother   was   walking  in 

the  park. 

(two  j>ersons — but  we  do  not  use  were. 
The  sentence  might  read,  The  girl  was 
walking  in  the  park  with  her  mother.) 
8.    The  husband  is  ill. 
(one  person) 

[161] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

4.  The  husband  as  well  as  the  wife  is  ill. 

(two  persons).     The  husband  is  ill  as 
well  as  the  wife. 

5.  The  man  was  discharged. 

(one  person) 

6.  The  man  together  with  his  assistants  was 

discharged. 

The  man  was  discharged   (together  with 
his  assistants). 

UNIFORMITY  THROUGH  THE  SENTENCE 

Remember  that  each  of  the  following:  each 
one,  every  one,  everybody,  anybody,  a  person,  a 
man,  a  pupil,  etc.,  means  only  one  person. 
When  using  these  words,  care  must  be  exercised 
to  be  consistent  throughout  the  sentence. 

A  Wrong:  If  each  one  will  come  to  the  desk, 
they  may  have  a  coupon. 

B  Right:  If  each  one  will  come  to  the  desk^  he 
(or  she)  may  have  a  coupon. 

In  sentence  A  each  one  means  one  person; 
therefore  they,  which  means  more  than  one,  is 
wrong.  Sentence  B  shows  the  correct  word  to 
use. 

A   Wrong:  Everyone  will  please  remove  their  hat. 
B   Right:    Everyone     will     please    remove    her 
(or  his)  hat. 

[  162  1 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

In  sentence  A  everyone  is  regarded  as  meaning 
every  separate  and  individual  person.  There- 
fore they,  which  means  more  than  one,  is  wrong. 
Sentence  B  shows  the  correct  word  to  use. 

A    Wrong:  Everybody     brought     their     children 

with  them. 
B    Right:     Everybody    brought    his     (or    her) 

children  with  him  (or  her). 

In  sentence  A  everybody  is  regarded  as  mean- 
ing every  one,  every  individual  one.  Their  and 
them  mean  more  than  one.  Therefore  their  and 
them  are  incorrectly  used.  Sentence  B  shows 
the  correct  words  to  use. 

A   Wrong:   If  anyone  has  lost  a  pencil,  they  will 

find  it  on  the  table. 
B   Right:     If  anyone  has  lost  a  pencil,  he  will 

find  it  on  the  table. 

A   Wrong:  If  anybody  wishes  a  pen,  they  may 

ask  for  it. 
B   Right:     If  anybody  wishes  a  pen,  he  may  ask 

for  it. 

A  Wrong:  If  a  person  speaks  correctly,  they 
make  a  good  impression. 

B  Right:  If  a  person  speaks  correctly,  he  makes 
a  good  impression. 

A  Wrong:  If  a  man  wants  a  position,  they  ought 
to  let  the  fact  be  known. 

[163] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

B   Right:     If  a  man  wants  a  position,  he  ought 
to  let  the  fact  be  known. 

A   Wrong:  If  a  person  wants  to  be  a  secretary, 

they  ought  to  have  a  knowledge  of 

business. 
B   Right:     If  a  person  wants  to  be  a  secretary, 

she  ought  to  have  a  knowledge  of 

business. 

A   Wrong:  If  a  pupil  comes  late,  they  are  pun- 
ished. 
B   Right:     If  a  pupil  comes  late,  he  is  punished. 

A    Wrong:  Each  may  have  their  gift  now. 
B   Right:     Each  may  have  his  gift  now. 

When  you  do  not  know  the  sex  of  the  p>erson 
or  persons  about  whom  you  are  talking,  you  may 
use  the  words  he  and  him,  regardless  of  sex,  if 
you  wish ;  or  you  may  say  he  or  she  and  hiin  or  her. 
If  you  know  the  sex,  you  use  the  word  required. 
Illustration  : 
Wrong:  If  a  person  comes  late  to  the  meeting, 

the  superintendent  speaks  sharply  to 

them. 

If  at  the  meeting  there  are  persons  of  both 
sexes,  you  may  use  the  word  him  alone  or  him  or 
her.  If  all  are  men,  use  him;  if  all  are  women, 
use  her. 

[164] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Right:     If  a  person  comes  late  to  the  meeting, 

the  superintendent  speaks  sharply  to 

him.     (or  him  or  her) 
Right:     If  a  person  comes  late  to  the  meeting, 

the  superintendent  speaks  sharply  to 

her. 


WHICH  DO  YOU  SAY? 


1.  John   divided   the   candy   between 
him  and  I. 


Group  1 


or 


2.  John   divided  the  candy   between 
him  and  me. 


or 


Group  2 


3.  John   divided   the   candy   between 

he  and  I. 

or 

4.  John   divided   the   candy   between 

him  and  myself. 

1.  The  doctor  asked  the  favor  of  my 

friend  and  I. 

or 

2.  The  doctor  asked  the  favor  of  my 

friend  and  me. 
or 

3.  The  doctor  asked  the  favor  of  my 

friend  and  myself. 

[165] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


1.  They  didn't  receive  the  telegram 
from  Harry  and  I  until  yester- 
day. 

Group  3-1  or 

2.  They  didn't  receive  the  telegram 
froTn  Harry  and  me  until  yester- 
day. 

1.  My  brother  sat  in  front  of  George 
and  I  at  the  theater. 

Group  4  -^  or 

2.  My  brother  sat  in  front  of  George 
and  me  at  the  theater. 

1.  My  sister  sat  behind  Tom  and  my- 
self at  the  concert. 

Group  5    i  ^^ 

2.  My  sister  sat  behind  Tom  and  me 

at  the  concert. 

1.  Should  you  like  to  go  vnth  George 
and  I? 

Group  Q  {  or 

2.  Should  you  like  to  go  with  George 
and  me? 

1.  They  sent  the  papers  to  John  and 
I  last  week. 

Group  7  •!  or 

2.  They  sent  the  papers  to  John  and 
me  last  week. 

[166] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

In  each  of  the  seven  groups  of  sentences  the 
second  one  is  correct. 

DEVICE 

Notice  the  italicized  words.  They  are  first 
cousins  to  the  word  to.  After  these  first  cousins 
you  use  the  same  word  that  you  would  use  after 
to.  You  do  not  say:  to  /,  to  he,  to  she,  to  ive,  to 
they.  You  say:  to  me,  to  hiniy  to  her,  to  us,  to 
them. 

These  are  Correct 

T.  She    sat    between    him    and     me. 
(to  him,  to  me) 

2.  Pass  the  candy  to   Tom  and  me, 
please,     (to  ine) 

3.  You  passed  right  by  mother  and 
me  without  speaking,     (to  me) 


Group  8 


A  suggestion:  In  sentences  like  2  and  3  in 
Group  8,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  decide  which 
word  is  required.  Just  omit  the  other  person 
or  persons  mentioned.     Illustration — 

In  sentence  2  omit  Tom.  You  would  say. 
Pass  the  candy  to  me. 

In  sentence  3  omit  mother.  You  would  say, 
You  passed  right  by  me. 

Many  persons  seem  afraid  to  use  the  word  me. 
Why?     If  the  word  were  not  to  be  used,  there 

[167] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

would  be  no  such  word.  There  is  a  time  when 
its  use  indicates  ignorance:  Me  and  him  went — 
should  be — He  and  I  went.  There  is  a  time 
when  its  use  indicates  education:  All  except  me 
went.     (Except  is  first  cousin  to  io.     To  me) 

Which  Does  Your  Speech  Indicate? 

Let  your  dictionary  help  you  with  these 
words.  When  you  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  word 
to  use  after  them,  look  them  up  in  the  diction- 
ary and  if  they  are  marked  prep,  (preposition), 
remember  that  they  will  take  the  word  after 
them  that  to  requires. 

WHAT  TO  USE  AFTER  "BUT"  AND 
"EXCEPT" 

Which  sentences  in  the  following  are  correct? 


1.  All  but  me  went  to  the  party. 

or 

2.  All  but  I  went  to  the  party. 


3.  All  went  but  /. 

or 

4.  All  went  but  me. 

[168] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

5.  All  except  me  went. 

or 

6.  All  except  I  went. 


7.  All  went  except  me. 

or 

8.  All  went  except  /. 


Before  reading  the  next  paragraph  be  sure  that 
you  have  decided  upon  the  correct  sentences.  If 
you  have  chosen  correctly,  you  may  be  pleased. 
Few  understand  this  point. 

Numbers  1,  4,  5,  7  are  right. 

Did  you  choose  correctly? 

The  arguer  will  say,  '*It  can't  be  right  to  say, 
*Me  went.*"     (Sentences  1  and  5) 

A  glance,  however,  will  show  the  argumenta- 
tive that  the  person  represented  by  the  word  me 
is  the  only  one  who  stayed  at  home.  It  is  not 
Me  went;  but  All  went  (except  me). 

Your  problem:  How  are  you  to  know  whether 
to  use  /  or  me,  we  or  us^  he  or  himy  she  or  her, 
they  or  them. 

DEVICE 

If  hut  can  be  substituted  for  except  and  except 
can  be  substituted  for  huty  the  word  which  fol- 

[i69l 


Pitfalls  in  English 

lows  but  or  except  is  the  word  that  would  follow 
the  word  to. 

We  say:  to  me,  to  thee  (Biblical  or  poetic 
style),  to  hirriy  to  her,  to  us,  to  them. 

Memorize  me,  thee,  him,  her,  us,  them.  Re- 
member to  use  any  one  of  these  words  when  but 
means  except  smd  when  except  means  but. 

OPERATION 

1.   All  the  children  except  can  play  the 

piano,     (she-her) 

LINE  OF  THOUGHT 

The  first  thing  to  find  out  is  this:  Does  except 
mean  but? 

Do  not  bother  about  whether  to  use  she  or 
her.     Use  the  word  Mary. 

All  the  children  except  Mary  can  play  the 
piano. 

All  the  children  but  Mary  can  play  the  piano. 

Yes,  except  in  this  sentence  means  but. 

K  except  means  but,  the  word  which  follows 
except  is  the  word  that  would  follow  to.     To  her. 

Therefore :  All  the  children  except  her  can  play 
the  piano. 

The  following  sentences  are  correct  because 
but  and  except  are  interchangeable  in  them. 
(Read  the  device  again.) 

[170] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

1.  All  the  boys  passed  but  him. 

2.  All  but  him  passed. 

3.  Pass  the  candy  to  all  but  her;  she  has  had 

just  as  much  as  is  good  for  her. 

4.  Every  child  but  us  had  a  book. 

5.  All  except  me  were  admitted. 

6.  I  spoke  to  all  but  her. 

7.  All  but  them  behaved  at  the  meeting. 

EXERCISE  i6 

Fill  the  blanks  with  correct  words  and  con- 
sult answers  on  page  369,  exercise  16. 

1.  Were  you  so  rude  as  to  give  every  one  but 

an  invitation  to  the  dance?    (him-he) 

2.  I  asked  all  but .     (she-her) 

3.  All  but were  asked,     (she-her) 

4.  Every  one  but took  part  in  the  enter- 

tainment.    (I-me) 

5.  Ev^ry   one  except   took  part   in   the 

entertainment.     (I-me) 

6.  I  saw  all  but .   (them-they) 

NOTICE 

But  does  not  always  mean  except;  except  does 
not  always  mean  but. 

7.  I  shall  go   hut  he  will  remain  in  Buffalo. 

{Except  cannot  be  used  in  sentence  7.) 

[171] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

8.    If  you  except  him,  you  are  right  in  saying 
that  they  are  fine  boys. 
(But  cannot  be  used  in  sentence  8.) 

Sentences  7  and  8  are  given  to  show  that  when 
hut  and  except  are  not  interchangeable,  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  deciding  what  should  follow. 

Do  not  confuse  the  word  except  which  some- 
times means  to  exclude  with  accept  which  means 
to  receive.  See  pages  120-122.  Be  careful  in  pro- 
nouncing except  to  have  ex  rhyme  with  necks; 
have  ac  in  accept  rhyme  with  back. 

IF 

Always  say:    If  I  were  you 
If  I  were  he 
If  I  were  she 
If  I  were  Mary 

WHEN  TO  USE  "WAS»»  AND  WHEN  TO  USE 
"WERE"  WITH  "IF" 

If  the  supposition  is  a  fact,  use  was;  if  not  a 
fact  or  if  you  are  uncertain  about  the  matter, 
use  were. 

1.   If  I  ^oere  you  (I  cannot  be  you;  this  is  not  a 
fact),  I'd  go. 

[172] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

2.  K  she  were  he  (She  cannot  be  he;  this  is  not 

a  fact),  she'd  go. 

3.  If  the  chair  were  an  antique  (it  is  not),  I*d 

buy  it. 

4.  If  the  chair  ivas  an  antique   (and  you  had 

proof  that  it  was),  why  didn't  you  buy  it? 

5.  If  the  weather  were  pleasant  (but  it  is  not), 

I'd  drive  daily. 

6.  If  the  weather  was  pleasant   (and  you  ad- 

mitted it  was),  why  didn't  you  go  to  school 
every  day.^ 

7.  If  the  boy  was  there  (you  say  he  was),  why 

didn't  you  speak  to  him  about  his  mother? 

8.  If  the  chair  were  sent  yesterday  (I'm  uncer- 

tain about  this),  I  should  think  that  you 
would  have  received  it  this  morning. 

DO  NOT  USE  "MOST"  WHEN  YOU  MEAN 
"ALMOST." 

"Almosf  *  means  "nearly." 

DEVICE 

1.  First,  try  almost. 

2.  If  almost  can  be  used,  use  it. 

3.  If  not,  use  most. 

1.  Right:  I  have  almost  finished,     (nearly) 

2,  Right:  We  walked  almost  five  miles,    (nearly) 

[173I 


Pitfalls  in  English 

3.  Right:  INlake  the  most  of  your  opportunities. 

4.  Right:  This   is   the  most  critical  moment  of 

your  life. 

5.  Right:  She  is  a  most  agreeable  person. 

OBSERVE  THE  ITALICIZED  WORDS. 

1.  Neither    she    nor    he    is   to    go.       (not    are) 

Neither  one  is  to  go. 

2.  Both  she  and  he  are  to  go.     (not  is)      Two 

are  to  go. 

3.  Either   she   or   he   is   to   blame,     (not    are) 

Either  one  or  the  other  is  to  blame. 

4.  One  or  the  other  of  the  girls  is  to  go.     Either 

one  or  the  other  is  to  go. 

5.  Each  one  is  to  be  presented  with  a  flower. 

Each  one  is. 

6.  Every  one  is  to  be  present.     One  is.    (Don't 

worry  about  the  word  every.) 

7.  Everyone  is  to  be  there,     (not  are) 

8.  Everybody  is  to  go.     (not  are) 

9.  Either  she  or  I  am  to  go.  (Z,  coming  second 

in   the   sentence,   requires   the   word   that 
belongs  with  I — /  am  not  I  is.) 

ACCURATE  SPEECH  IN  CONVERSATION 

It  is  all  very  well  to  devote  your  attention  to 
clear  enunciation  of  single  words;  it  is  necessary, 
however,  to  apply  this  attention  every  minute 

[174] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

in  your  coijversation.     Here  are  a  few  sentences 
that  may  show  you  wherein  you  are  careless. 

ACTION  WORDS 

Wrong    He  come  over  to  see  me  yesterday. 
Right:     He  came  over  to  see  me  yesterday. 

Wrong:  I  run  across  the  street  when  I  saw  the 

policeman. 
Right:     I  ran  across  the  street  when  I  saw  the 

policeman. 

Wrong:  He  begun  the  work  yesterday. 
Right:     He  began  the  work  yesterday. 

Wrong:  He  swum  a  mile. 
Right:     He  swam  a  mile. 

Wrong:  The  soloist  sung  two  songs. 
Right:     The  soloist  sang  two  songs. 

Wrong:  The  agent  rung  the  bell. 
Right:     The  agent  rang  the  bell. 

The  words  come,  run,  begun,  swum,  sung,  rung, 
and  many  other  words  expressing  action,  are 
often  used  incorrectly.  These  words  must  often 
be  used  with  a  helping  word  like  has,  have,  or  had. 

The  way  to  eliminate  this  error  is  to  memorize 
the  three  forms  of  the  words  which  are  included 
in  the  following  list  and  observe  with  which  ones 
you  must  use  has,  have,  and  had.     There  are 

[175] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


many  other  such  words  not  included  in  the  list. 
You  will  find  them  with  their  three  different 
forms  in  the  dictionary. 

All  the  words  in  column  one  should  be  used 
alone  or  with  the  helping  words  do,  does,  did,  shall, 
willy  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  should,  would,  to. 

All  the  words  in  column  two  represent  the  past 
and  never  need  a  helping  word. 

All  the  words  in  column  three  must  be  used 
with  has,  have,  had,  etc. 


am  (be) 

ask 

attack 

be  (am) 

begin 

bend 

bet 

bid 

bite 

bleed 

blow 

break 

bring 

broadcast 

build 

burst 

buy 

catch 


was,  were 

asked 

attacked 

was,  were 

began 

bent 

bet 

bade  or  bid 

bit 

bled 

blew 

broke 

brought 

broadcast 

built 

burst 

bought 

caught 

[176] 


3 

been 

asked 

attacked 

been 

begun 

bent 

bet 

bidden  or  bid 

bitten 

bled 

blown 

broken 

brought 

broadcast 

built 

burst 

bought 

caught 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


1 

2 

3 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

come 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

cost 

creep 

crept 

crept 

dive 

dived 

dived 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

dream 

dreamed 

dreamed 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

drive 

drove 

driven 

drowu 

drowned 

drowned 

(rhymes    with     (rhymes    with 

round) 

round) 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

fight 

fought 

fought 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

got 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

grow 

grew 

grown 

hang 

hung 

hung 

(an  article) 

(an  article) 

hang 

hanged 

hanged 

(a  person) 

(a  person) 

hear 

heard 

heard 

heat 

heated 

[177] 

heated 

Pitfalls  in  English 


1 

2 

3 

hide 

hid 

hidden 

hit 

hit 

hit 

hold 

held 

held 

hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

keep 

kept 

kept 

kneel 

knelt 

knelt 

knit 

knit 

knit 

know 

knew 

known 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

leave 

left 

left 

lend 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

let 

lie 

lay 

lain 

light 

lighted 

lighted 

lighten 

lightened 

lightened 

lose 

lost 

lost 

make 

made 

made 

massacre 

massacred  (kerd) 

massacred 

mean 

meant 

meant 

meet 

met 

met 

put 

put 

put 

read 

read 

read 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

ring 

rang 

rung 

run 

ran 

run 

say 

said 

said 

see 

saw 

seen 

[178] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


1 

2 

S 

seek 

sought 

sought 

seU 

sold 

sold 

send 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shed 

shed 

shed 

shine 

shone-shined* 

shone-shined 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

shut 

shut 

shut 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

sit 

sat 

sat 

skid 

skidded 

skidded 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

slide 

slid 

slidden 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spin 

spun 

spun 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

swim 

swam 

swum 

swing 

swung 

swung 

*The  sun  shone  brightly  all  day. 
He   shined   my   shoes.     {Polished   would   be 
better  in  this  sentence.) 

[179] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


1 
take 
teach 
tear 
tell 
think 
throw 
thrust 
wear 
weave 
wet 
wind 
wring 
write 


2 
took 
taught 
tore 
told 

thought 
threw 
thrust 
wore 
wove 
wet 
wound 
wrung 
wrote 


taken 

taught 

torn 

told 

thought 

thrown 

thrust 

worn 

woven 

wet 

wound 

wrung 

written 


As  you  are  desirous  of  improving  your  speech 
you  will  like  better  the  definite,  preferred  forms 
given  in  each  column  rather  than  a  choice  of 
forms. 

Illustration  : 

The  past  of  knit  is  knit  or  knitted. 

You  are  given  only  one  form  (knit)  because 
knit  is  preferable. 

The  past  of  light  is  lighted  or  lit. 

You  are  given  one  form  (lighted)  because 
lighted  is  preferable. 

When  you  are  in  doubt  about  any  form  of  this 
type  of  word,  consult  the  dictionary.  See  pages 
234-237. 

[i8o] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

WHEN  TO  USE  THE  "HAS"  AND  "HAVE" 
FORMS  AND  WHEN  NOT  TO  USE  THEM 

Has  and  have  forms  are  such  expressions  as 

has  gone,  has  heen,  has  written,  have  written,  have 
jumped,  have  swum,  have  begun,  have  run,  etc. 

The  Pitf  aU 
Wrong 

1.  I  have  icriUen  to  her  yesterday. 

2.  He  has  come  at  two  o'clock. 

3.  I  have  swum  a  mile  yesterday  morning. 

4.  He  has  mailed  the  letter  this  morning. 

5.  After   school   closed   I   have   worhed   in   an 

office. 

Right 

6.  I  wrote  to  her  yesterday. 

7.  He  came  at  two  o'clock. 

8.  I  swam  a  mile  yesterday  morning. 

9.  He  mailed  the  letter  this  morning. 

10.   After  school  closed  I  worked  in  an  office. 

DEVICE 

Has  and  have  forms  are  correct  when  the 
sentence  contains  as  a  limit  of  time  the  present 
moment. 

[i8i] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Observe  : 

Sentence  1  talks  about  yesterday  and  no  other 
moment. 

Sentence  2  mentions  two  o'clock  and  no 
other  moment. 

Sentence  3  mentions  yesterday  morning  and 
no  other  time. 

Sentence  4  mentions  this  morning  and  no  other 
time. 

Sentence  5  mentions  the  close  of  school  and 
no  other  time. 

Sentences  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  do  not  mention  the  pres- 
ent moment  as  the  limit  of  time. 

Therefore  they  should  not  contain  has  or 
have.     (See  sentences  6-10.) 

Right 

11.  Ever  since  the  close  of  school  I  have  worked 

in  an  office. 

12.  From  the  time  that  you  made  the  request  I 

have  not  forgotten  to  follow  directions. 

13.  Since  the  war,  food  has  been  high. 

14.  From  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America 

until  today  history  has  been  recording  these 
facts. 

15.  I  have  practiced  medicine  for  the  last  twenty 

years. 

[  182  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

16.  I  practiced  medicine  for  twenty  years. 
(After  twenty  years  I  changed  my  occu- 
pation.) 

Observe : 

Sentence  11  implies  from  the  close  of  school 
until  today. 

Sentence  12  implies  from  the  time  of  the 
request  until  today. 

Sentence  13  implies  from  the  end  of  the  war 
until  the  present  time. 

Sentence  14  implies  from  1492  until  today. 

Sentence  15  implies  a  practice  reaching  to 
the  present  day. 

Sentence  16  does  not  mean  that  the  time  of 
practice  reaches  to  the  present  day.  Notice 
the  omission  of  have. 

ANOTHER  SUGGESTION 

When  a  definite  time  is  mentioned  (last  week, 
today,  tomorrow,  yesterdaj',  last  month,  a 
moment  ago,  a  few  days  ago,  a  few  months  ago,  a 
few  years  ago,  two  o  clock),  do  not  use  has  or 
have. 

This  suggestion  in  no  way  contradicts  or  con- 
flicts with  the  device.  It  is  an  additional  idea 
which  may  help  you  to  decide  quickly  whether 
or  not  to  use  has  or  have. 

Decide  why  the  following  are  correct. 

[183] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

1.  I  went  to  Europe  last  year. 

2.  I  have  been  to  Europe  three  times. 

3.  I  went  to  Europe  three  times  about  the 

matter. 

4.  He  has  failed  to  give  satisfaction. 

5.  He  failed  to  give  satisfaction. 

6.  She  has  left  the  room. 

7.  She  left  the  room  a  moment  ago. 

8.  Mary  has  heard  Paderewski  play  twice. 

9.  Mary  heard  Paderewski  play  twice. 
10.  I  have  joined  the  society. 

H.   I  joined  last  week. 

Here  are  the  arguments  for  sentences  1-11 
that  will  make  the  uses  of  has  and  have^  or  their 
omission,  clear. 

1.  Do  not  use  have  gone.  A  definite  time  is 
stated  (last  year). 

£.  Have  been  is  correct  because  the  present 
day  is  understood  to  be  the  limit  of  time. 
Up  to  the  present  moment  I  have  been  to 
Europe  three  times. 

3.  Do  not  use  have  gone.  From  the  previous 
conversation  a  definite  time  is  understood. 
You  and  I  are  talking.  I  have  occasion 
to  say  to  you  that  I  went  to  Europe  three 
times  about  the  matter.  From  the  con- 
versation you  know  that  I  mean  during  a 

[184] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

definite  time.     The  present  day,  as  a  time 
limit,  is  not  expressed. 

4.  Has  jailed  is  correct  because  the  time  limit 

is  the  present. 

5.  Do  not  use  has  failed.     A  definite  time  is 

understood.  Perhaps  the  definite  time  is 
when  he  held  the  position. 

6.  Has  left  is  correct  because  the  present  mo- 

ment is  the  limit  of  time. 

7.  Do   not   use   has   left.     A  definite   time    (a 

moment  ago)  is  stated. 

8.  Has  heard  is  correct  because  the  time  limit 

is  the  present. 

9.  Do  not  use  has  heard  because,  from  previous 

sentences  in  the  conversation,  the  speaker 
gives  you  to  understand  that  at  a  definite 
time  (while  Mary  was  in  New  York,  while 
she  was  at  college,  while  away,  or  last 
week  in  her  own  city)  Mary  heard  Pad- 
erewski  twice. 

10.  Have  joined  is  correct  because  today  is  the 

limit  of  time. 

11.  Do  not  say  have  joined  because  a  definite 

time  is  stated. 

From  these  expressions  you  will  see  that  you 
will  sometimes  determine  whether  or  not  to  use 
the  has  and  have  forms  by  the  sense  of  previous 
sentences. 

[185] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

STATIONARY— STATIONERY 

On  a  sign  in  the  window  of  a  local  drug  store 
is  the  following: 

We  Sell 
Pens,  Ink,  Stamps,  and  Stationary 

That  sign  is  incorrect.  Having  it  in  the 
window  for  prospective  customers  to  read  is 
injurious  to  the  proprietor's  standing  in  that 
neighborhood.  The  store  is  cheapened  by  its 
presence. 

Perhaps  you  are  saying:  "I  never  can  remem- 
ber when  to  spell  this  word  with  an  a  and  when 
with  an  e." 

It  is  easy  to  fix  these  words. 

Stationery  means  paper  and  envelopes. 
Paper  ends  with  er. 
Stationer?/  requires  er. 

Stationary/    means    fixed,    immovable,    per- 
manent. 
If  the  other  word  is  ery,  this  one  is  ary. 

Right 

1.  We  have  stationary/  bath-tubs,     (fixed,  im- 

movable— not  paper  tubs) 

2.  We  have  stationary/  wash-basins. 

3.  We   have   stationary/   windows,     (the   kind 

which  will  not  open) 

[i86] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

4.  We  have  stationary/  engineers.     (They  stay 

at  and  operate  one  engine.) 

5.  We  have  a  stationarz/  china  closet  in  our 

home. 

6.  We  have  stationer?/  washtubs  in  the  cellar. 

7.  Always  use  white  stationer^/,     (paper  and 

envelopes) 

8.  Do  not  use  ruled  stationer!/,     (paper  and 

envelopes) 


EXERCISE  17 

Supply  the  correct  word.     Answers  on  page 
369,  exercise  17. 

1.  Did  you  engage  a engineer.^ 

2.  I  am  a  lover  of  exquisite . 

3.  The tubs  are  out  of  order. 

4.  Wliy  did  you  build  windows  in  that 

haU.^ 

5.  Put  a  piece  of over  the  crack  in  that 

window  to  keep  the  snow  out. 

6.  Do  you  use  colored ? 

7.  The   stationer  was  having  shelves   put   up 

for  the  display  of  his . 

8.  It  is  not  considered  in  good  taste  to  use 

highly  colored  — — ;     Neither  should  one 
use  ruled . 

[187] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

ONLY 

Be  sure  to  put  only  in  its  correct  place  in  a 
sentence.  It  should  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
word  to  which  it  is  closely  related. 

Observe  how  the  meaning  is  altered  by  the 
different  positions  of  only. 

Only  I  walked  a  mile.  (Not  any  one  else 
walked  a  mile.) 

I  only  walked  a  mile.  (I  only  walked;  I  did 
not  run.) 

I  walked  only  a  mile.     (No  more,  no  less.) 

Only  Kate  had  carfare.  (Not  any  one  else 
had  carfare.) 

Kate,  only,  had  carfare.  (Not  any  one  else 
had  carfare.) 

Kate  had  only  carfare.  (She  had  no  other 
money.) 

Avoid  : 

I  only  have  two  dollars. 

I  only  have  a  small  amount  of  butter  on  hand. 

I  only  have  one  ticket. 

Tom  only  earns  four  dollars  a  day. 

She  only  has  one  child. 

Say: 

I  have  only  two  dollars. 

I  have  only  a  small  amount  of  butter  on  hand. 
[i88] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

I  have  only  one  ticket. 

Tom  earns  only  four  dollars  a  day. 

She  has  only  one  child. 

SEPARATION    OF    "TO"    FROM    CERTAIN 

WORDS 

Study  the  following: 

Wrong:  1.  I  shall  try  to  always  be  on  time. 
Right:     1.  I  shall  try  always  to  be  on  time. 
Right:     1.  I  shall  always  try  to  be  on  time. 

Wrong:  2.  He  asked  to  immediately  have  the 
money. 

Right:  2.  He  asked  to  have  the  money  immedi- 
ately. 

Wrong:  3.  I  asked  you  to  promptly  return  the 

book. 
Right:     3.  I    asked    you    to    return    the    book 

promptly. 

Wrong:  4.  I  told  him  to  neatly  write  his  name. 
Right:     4.  I  told  him  to  write  his  name  neatly. 

CAUTION 

Do  not  separate  the  word  to  from  a  following 
action  word.  (Go,  write y  jump,  walk,  speak,  etc. 
are  action  words.) 

[189I 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Note:  Be  and  seem  and  a  few  other  words  are 
in  the  class  with  action  words,  although  they  do 
not  express  action.  They  must  never  be  sep- 
arated from  U). 

DEVICE 

a.  Repeat  the  sentence  omitting  the  word  which 

tells  how  or  when. 

b.  Place  the  word  immediately  preceding  the 

word  which  tells  how  or  when  {to)  and  the 
word  which  follows  it  next  to  each  other. 

This  device  will  bring  to  and  the  action  word 
together  in  the  sentence. 

Illustration  : 

In  sentence  1  always  is  the  word  which  tells 
when. 

To  is  the  word  which  precedes  always. 

Be  is  the  word  which  follows  always. 

To  and  he  must  not  be  separated. 
Right:  I  shall  always  try  to  he  on  time. 

In  sentence  2  immediately  is  the  word  which 
tells  when. 

To  is  the  word  which  precedes  immediately. 
Have  is  the  word  which  follows  immediately. 

To  and  have  must  not  be  separated. 

Right:  He  asked  to  have  the  money  immediately. 

[  190  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

In  sentence  3  promptly  is  the  word  which  tells 
when. 

To  is  the  word  which  precedes  promptly. 
Return  is  the  word  which  follows  promptly. 

To  and  return  must  not  be  separated. 

Right:  I  asked  you  to  return  the  book  promptly. 

In  sentence  4  neatly  is  the  word  which  tells  how. 
To  is  the  word  which  precedes  neatly. 
Write  is  the  word  which  follows  neatly. 

To  and  irrite  must  not  be  separated. 

Right:  I  told  him  to  write  his  name  neatly. 

LEAVE— LET— LIEF 

1.   Leave  means  allow  to  continue  in  any  place 
or  condition. 

Wrong:  Let  the  book  there,     (in  that  place) 
Right:     Leave  the  book  there,     (in  that  place) 

Wrong:  Let  the  door  open,     (condition) 
Right:     Leave  the  door  open,     (condition) 

£.    Leave  also  means  depart ^  depart  from. 

Right:     I  shall  soon  leave  the  city,   (depart  from) 
Right:     Do  not  leave  me  alone,     (depart  from 
me) 

[191] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Right:  When  did  he  leave?     (depart) 
*Right:  Leave  me  alone.     (Depart  from  me.     I 
wish  to  be  alone.) 

S.   Let  means  allow,     (in  the  sense  of  permit) 

Wrong:  Leave  me  go. 

Right:     Let  me  go.     (Allow  me  to  go.) 

Wrong:  Leave  me  have  some  money. 

Right:     Let  me  have  some  money.     (Allow  me 

to  have  some  money.) 
*  Right:     Let    me    alone.     (Stop  annoying  me. 

Allow  me  to  have  peace.) 

4.  Leave  means  departure. 

Wrong:  He  took  a  lief  of  absence. 
Right:     He  took  a  leave  of  absence. 

5.  Lief  means  willingly. 

Wrong:  I'd  as  leave  go  by  train  as  by  boat. 
Right:     I'd  as  lief  go  by  train  as  by  boat. 

*Notice  the  difference  between  the  two  sen- 
tences marked  with  an  asterisk  (*). 

EXERCISE  i8 

Supply  the  correct  word  in  each  of  the  follow- 
ing. 

Consult  the  answers,  page  370,  exercise  18. 

[192] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

1.    the  windows  closed  when  you  go  out. 

2.    me  see  your  new  purse,  please. 

3.    the  kettle  on  the  stove  when  you  go 

out. 

4.    me  know  as  soon  as  you  arrive. 

5.    the  gate  closed. 

6.  He  took  a  year's of  absence. 

7.  He  said  that  he  would  just  as pay  the 

bill  now. 

8.  I  shall  soon for  New  York. 

9.    me  go. 

10.    me  alone  in  this  room.     I  wish  to  be 

quiet. 

GET 

Present         Past  Ing  form  With  has,  have,  had 

get  got         getting  got  (avoid  gotten) 

Now  you  are  going  to  get  a  surprise!  You 
have  undoubtedly  studiously  avoided  the  use  of 
get  in  your  Sunday  conversation  because  your 
teachers  have  told  you  not  to  use  the  poor  little 
word.  After  you  have  looked  into  the  matter, 
you  will  find  that  it  really  is  a  very  good,  useful 
word,  and  correct  in  its  place.  If  you  were  to 
eliminate  all  the  gefs  and  the  gofs  from  your 
speech,  you  would  be  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to 
use  when  you  wished  to  say  many  things  and 
your  conversation  would  be  stilted  and  stiff. 

[193] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Observe: 


You  may 


get  up 
get  down 
get  in 
get  out 
get  off 
get  on 
get  over 
get  away 
get  along 
get  through 
get  together 
get  back 
get  home 
get  money 


and  when  you  do  "get  up,"  "get  down,"  "get 
in,"  "get  out,"  you  need  have  no  fear  of  the 
ubiquitous  nuisance  who  immediately  pounces 
upon  you  with  the  question,  "  Is  it  correct  to  use 
get  in  that  way?  I  am  surprised  at  YOU!" 
I  am  sure  that  you  know  that  person. 


BUT 

since  so  many  persons  have  an  aversion  to  the 
use  of  gety  it  is  perhaps  often  advisable  to  substi- 
tute some  other  word,  if  by  so  doing  you  will 
not  appear  forced  in  style. 

[194] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

THESE  ARE  CORRECT: 


In  the  sense  of 

to  obtain 

Did  you  get  the  money? 

to  procure 

He  tried  to  get  possession 

of  the  property. 

to  learn 

Did  you  get  your  lesson? 

to  earn 

Her  husband  does  not  get 

a  living  out  of  the  busi- 

ness. 

to^attain 

I  do  wish  that  I  could  get 

a  night's  rest. 

to  catch 

How    did    you    get    the 

mumps? 

to  cause  to  be  in  any 

The  child  got  her  feet  wet 

condition 

at  the  park. 

to  induce 

Get  him  to  come  with  us. 

to  lay  in 

We  must  soon  get  our  coal 

for  the  winter. 

to  secure  remission 

He  got  off  with  a  small 

of  punishment 

fine. 

to  don 

He  got  on  his  clothes  and 

ran  to  the  fire. 

to  finish 

Hurry!    Let  us  get  it  over 

quickly. 

to  arrange 

They  got  up  an  entertain- 

ment. 

to  array 

She  got  herself  up  in  ridic- 

ulous style. 

[195] 

Pitfalls  in  English 


to  arrive  at 

to  come  to  be 

to  bring  into  a  state, 
condition,  or  po- 
sition 

to  go  about 

to  become  current 

to  contrive  to  pros- 
per, or  avoid  dis- 
aster 

to  arrive  at  one's 
dwelling 

to  effect  an  en- 
trance 

to  attain  to  inti- 
macy 

to  escape 
to  dismount 


What  time  did  you  get  to 

New  York? 
They  soon  got  to  be  friends. 
I  couldn't  get  to  sleep. 
Lena  is  getting  well. 
We    got    there    at    four 

o'clock. 
He     doesn't     get     about 

much    because    of    his 

heart. 
The      story      got      about 

through  the  maid. 
The    brothers    get    along 

nicely. 

When  did  you  get  home.? 

He    got    into    my    good 

graces. 
He  got  into  the  house  by 

forcing  a  window. 
She  tried  to  get  in  with  the 

influential    members    of 

the  club. 
He  got  off  easily. 
He  got  off  the  car. 
He   had  just   got   off   the 

horse  when  he  slipped. 

[196] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

to    become    accus-  He    never    got    over    his 

tomed  daughter's  elopement, 

to  finish  He  gets  through  at  five, 

to  succeed  in  pass-  He  got  through  his  exam- 

ing    through    an  inations. 

ordeal 

to  come  to  an  agree-  We  can't  get  together  on 

ment  the  price, 

to  rise  Get  up,  John;  it  is  seven 

o'clock. 

Note:  Although  all  the  words  under  "In  the 
sense  of"  are  in  the  present  form,  any  variation 
of  the  word  get  has  been  used  to  show  the  differ- 
ent forms  in  sentences. 

There  are  many  more  correct  uses  of  get.  If 
you  are  interested  in  knowing  them,  consult 
Webster's  International  Dictionary.  Do  not 
dispute  the  use  of  get  until  you  have  read  all  that 
is  said  about  it  in  an  unabridged  dictionary. 

Has  got,  have  got,  had  got  are  correct  when 
you  mean  has  obtained,  have  ohtainedy  or  had 
obtained. 

Correct 

*I  have  got  permission  to  go  through  the 
building. 

Incorrect 

I  have  got  blue  eyes. 

[197] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

EXPLANATION 

I    have    obtained    per-     I  did  not  obtain  blue 
mission.  eyes. 

(This   sentence   should 
be:  I  have  blue  eyes.) 

Remember  that  has  got,  have  got,  and  had  got 
are  sometimes  correct;  but  there  is  always  a  way 
of  avoiding  these  expressions  if  you  are  not  sure 
of  yourself.  Unless  you  fully  understand  how 
to  use  these  three  expressions  never  use  them. 
You  can  easily  avoid  them. 

DEVICE 

*Try  has,  have,  or  had  without  the  word  get, 
K  the  word  get  cannot  be  omitted, -you  are  safe 
in  using  it.  In  the  sentence  marked  with  an 
asterisk,  got  could  be  omitted  if  the  speaker  so 
desired. 

IDIOMS  IN  WHICH  "GET'^  IS  USED 

An  idiom  is  an  expression  the  meaning  of 
which  as  a  whole  cannot  be  understood  from  the 
meaning  of  the  words  which  form  it. 

Illustration: 

Get  out!  (This  does  not  mean  to  get  out.  It 
means  Nonsense!) 

[198] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

To  obtain  the  privilege 

of  When   he   gets   your    ear, 

you  may  as  well  make 
up  your  mind  that 
you'll  be  late  for  din- 
ner. 
(The  italicized  part  is 
the  idiom.) 

To  capture  They've  got  the  thief. 

(They  really  have  not 
the  thief  in  their  pos- 
session; but  he  is 
under  arrest.) 

COLLOQUIALISMS 

A   colloquialism   is   an   expression   commonly 
used,  though  not  of  the  best  style. 

Use   colloquialisms   and   dialectic   expressions 
only  in  familiar  conversation. 

to  receive  a  sentence  of     ]Mr.    Smith    got    three 

months, 
to  corner  Now  I've  got  you. 

to  find  as  if  by  search      Now,  what  have  you  got 

to  worry  about.'* 
to  be  obliged  to  She's  got  to  do  it. 

[199] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

"  catch  "  You'll  get  it  when  father 

comes  home. 
to   obtain   an  ad  van-     She'll  get  the  bett^  of 
tage  over  you  every  time. 

DIALECTIC 

A  dialectic  expression  is  a  form  of  speech 
peculiar  to  a  section  of  the  country  or  to  a 
community. 

To  manage  I  didn't  get  to  go  to  the 

concert. 

SLANG  IN  WHICH  "GET"  IS  USED 

Slang  applies  to  a  word  or  an  expression  hav- 
ing conventional  use,  but  vulgar  or  inelegant. 
Avoid  the  following: 

To  become  angry  Don't  get  your  back  up 

at  every  little  thing. 

VULGAR 

To  be  converted  Since   he's   got   religion 

he  has  stopped  gam- 
bling. 

To  take  one's  self  off.      Git !     (meaning   to    get 

away  or  go  away) 
[  200  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

BRING— TAKE 
DO  NOT  CONFUSE  THESE  TWO  WORDS. 

They  offer  much  difficulty  to  the  person  who 
has  not  a  natural  discriminating  power  in  the 
use  of  them.     They  are  peculiar. 

Use  bring  when  the  person  to  whom  you  are 
talking  is  at  the  place  to  which  the  article  is  to 
be  conveyed. 

A  is  talking  to  B  at  B's     I    will    bring    you    the 

home.  book. 

A  is  talking  over  the     I    will    bring    you    the 

telephone  to  B  who         book. 

is  at  home. 
B  will  be  at  C's  later,     I  will  bring  the  book  to 

when  A  leaves  the         you  at  C's  tomorrow. 

book  for  B  at  C's 

home.      (A  is  talk- 
ing.) 

Use  take  when  the  person  to  whom  you  are 
talking  is  not  at  the  place  to  which  the  article 
is  to  be  conveyed. 

A  is  talking  to  B  at     I  will  take  the  book  to  C 
B's  home.  and  she  will  send  it  to 

you. 

[201] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

A  is  talking  to  B  over     I  will  take  the  book  to  C 
the  telephone.  and  she  will  send  it  to 

you. 

THESE  ARE  CORRECT. 

1.    Be  sure  to  bring  my  umbrella. 
£.    Be  sure  to  take  your  umbrella. 

3.  Will    you    bring    my    white    gloves 

over? 

4.  Will  you  take  my  white  gloves  over 

to  Kate? 

5.  I  think  that  I'll  take  my  coat. 

EXPLANATION 

1.  Umbrella    to    be    left    where    the 

speaker  is. 

2.  Umbrella   to   be   taken   to   a   place 

where  the  speaker  is  not. 

3.  Gloves  to  be  left  where  the  speaker 

is. 

4.  Gloves  to  be  left  where  the  speaker 

is  not. 

5.  Coat  to  be  taken  where  the  speaker 

is  to  be. 

Fetch  implies  two  actions :  going  for  the  article 
and  conveying  it  to  some  other  place. 

Mother,  lying  on  the  couch,  says  to  her  son: 

Please  fetch  me  my  shawl. 
[202  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

The  son  goes  to  the  closet,  gets  the  shawl,  and 
hands  it  to  his  mother. 

HAVE  YOU  AN  EAR  FOR  LANGUAGE? 

In  all  languages,  especially  in  English,  there 
are  many  words  which  are  so  nearly  alike  in 
sound  that  unless  one  knows  the  word,  how  to 
spell  it,  pronounce  it,  and  its  meaning,  it  is  well 
to  look  up  the  word  in  the  dictionary  when  it  is 
first  heard. 

For  example,  you  may  hear  a  person  talking 
about  an  experience  which  necessitated  his  going 
to  see  the  American  Consul.  Unless  you  know 
the  word  consul  you  are  likely  to  think  it  is  coun- 
cil or  even  counsel. 

In  the  same  way  many  persons  mispronounce 
the  words  enmronment  and  deteriorate.  When 
they  hear  them  for  the  first  time  they  hear  them 
as  en-vi-ro-ment  and  de-ter-i-ate.  In  the  first  one 
the  n  was  not  heard;  in  the  second  a  whole  syl- 
lable was  omitted  (or).  Sometimes  the  speaker 
puts  in  a  letter  or  a  syllable  as  in  the  word  familiar 
when  called  farmiliar.  (The  first  r  does  not  be- 
long in  the  word.) 

It  behooves  those  not  perfectly  sure  of  a  new 
word  to  look  it  up  to  know  its  spelling,  pronun- 
ciation, meaning,  and  how  to  use  it  in  a  sentence. 
Suppose  you  have  heard  the  word  consul.     You 

[203] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

look  up  counsel  and  you  find  that  the  meaning 
is  not  applicable  in  the  sentence  in  which  you 
heard  it.  You  then  look  up  council  with  the 
same  result.  By  this  time  you  discover  by  in- 
quiry that  there  is  a  special  word — consul — for 
this  important  personage  who  comes  to  your 
assistance  when  you  are  in  difficulty  in  a  foreign 
country.  You  have  no  idea  how  many  persons 
are  today  speaking  of  him  as  the  American 
Counsel. 

If  you  look  up  environment  the  first  time  you 
hear  it,  you  will  perhaps  be  surprised  to  find  the 
second  n  and  you  will  be  careful  to  include  it  in 
your  pronunciation  and  spelling.  A  few  of  these 
surprises  will  make  you  careful  before  introduc- 
ing a  new  word  into  your  vocabulary  and  your 
English  will  soon  show  improvement.  Above  all 
things  do  not  pick  up  new  words  from  those  with 
whom  you  converse  unless  you  have  the  utmost 
confidence  in  them — and  then  do  not.  Find 
the  new  words  in  the  dictionary  before  using 
them. 

SOME  CONFUSING  WORDS 

COUNSEL-COUNCIL-CONSUL-CONSOLE 

counsel     has  reference  to  advice,  to  advising,  and 

to  one  who  gives  advice. 

[204] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


council  is  a  group  of  persons  having  certain 
power. 

consul  is  a  government  official  residing  in  a 
foreign  country. 

console  means  a  bracket  and  is  applied  to  cer- 
tain types  of  tables  and  other 
articles. 

I  shall  seek  counsel  in  the  matter. 

(advice) 
He     is     counseling     his     son     now. 

(advising) 
My  counsel  advised   me  to   remain 

with  the  firm,     (adviser) 

The  council  passed  the  law  that  for- 
bade certain  acts,     (body  of  men) 

The  Italian  Consul  is  too  busy  to  see 
me  today,  (government  represen- 
tative) 

She  has  a  console  table  in  her  hall, 
(type  of  table)  (Accent  the  word 
console  as  used  in  this  sentence  on 
the  first  syllable.) 


IMPLY— INFER 


Imply  means  to  express  indirectly;  to  insinu- 
ate. 

[205] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Infer  means  to  draw  a  conclusion  from  a 
remark. 

The  speaker  or  writer  implies. 
The  listener  or  reader  infers. 

Your  remark  implies  that  you  have 

been  away. 
From  your  remark  I  infer  that  you  have 

been  away. 

Most  good  T\Titers  and  speakers  observe  the 
distinction  here  given.  It  is  better  not  to  use 
the  words  interchangeably,  even  though  Web- 
ster's dictionary  gives  imply  as  a  meaning  of 
infer. 

AFTERWARD— AFTERWARDS 

These  words  are  used  interchangeably. 

Right:  Afterwards  we  played  golf. 
Right:  Afterward  we  played  golf. 

LEND— LOAN 

Present  Past  Ing  form  With  has, 

have,  had 

lend  lent  lending  lent 

loan  loaned  loaning  loaned 

In  financial  dealings  of  importance,  loan  may  be 
used  for  lend.  A  government  loans  money.  A 
person  lends  money. 

[206] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  I  loaned  her  five  dollars. 
Wrong:  I  tended  her  five  dollars. 
Right:     I  lent  her  five  dollars. 

Right:  I  will  lend  you  the  money. 

Right:  I  lent  her  the  money  yesterday. 

Right:  Have  you  Ze«i  the  book? 

Right:  The   United   States   will   loan   France 

money. 

*Right:  The  loan  of  the  money  is  appreciated. 

*  Right:  I  shall  be  glad  of  the  loan  of  ten  cents. 

*You  can  see  that  the  word  lend  could  not  be 
used  in  these  two  sentences. 

REMEMBER 
The  recipient  of  the  article  borrows. 
The  giver  of  the  article  lends. 

Wrong:  May  I  loan  five  dollars.'^ 
Wrong:  May  I  lend  five  dollars? 
Right:     May  I  borrow  five  dollars? 

Wrong:  He  borrowed  five  dollars  off  me. 
Wrong:  He  borrowed  me  five  dollars. 
Right:     He  borrowed  five  dollars  Jrom  me. 

ELEMENT— ALIMENT— AILMENT 

element     one  of  the  parts  of  anything. 

aliment     means  food. 

ailment     means  physical  difficulty. 

[207] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

1.  Hydrogen  is  an  element  of  water. 

2.  Ox\^gen  is  an  element  of  air. 

3.  One  aliment  of  which  you  should  eat  sparingly 

is  classed  as  carbohydrate. 

4.  She  is  always  complaining  of  some  ailment. 

ELEMENTARY— ALIMENTARY 

elementary     refers  to  the  beginning. 
alimentary     relates  to  aliments,     (foods) 

1.  In  the  elementary  subjects  she  stood  high. 

2.  The   alimentary  canal   was  the   seat   of  the 

disease. 

BETWEEN— AMONG 

Between  is  used  with  two  things.   , 
Among  is  used  with  more  than  two  things. 

1.  I  divided  the  candy  between  the  boy  and  his 

sister,     (two  persons) 

2.  She    divided    the    money    among    the    three 

sisters. 

3.  The  papers  were  circulated  among  the  guests. 

VOCATION— AVOCATION 

Vocation  refers  to  one's  regular  occupation. 
Avocation  refers  to  an  occupation  outside  one*s 
regular  work. 

[208] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

is  vocation  is  teaching. 

e   earns   much   money   through  his  avocation, 

which  is  landscape  gardening. 

BESIDES— BESIDE 

Besides  means  in  addition  to. 
Beside  means  by  the  side  of. 

have  two  houses  besides  (in  addition  to)    the 
one  in  which  I  live, 
ne  house  stands  beside  the  other,     (by  the  side 

of) 

^rong:  I  have  two  books  beside  this  one. 
ight:     I  have  two  books  besides  this  one. 

THEN— THAN 

Then  includes  the  element  of  time.     It  some- 
mes  means  in  addition. 
Than  compares  two  articles  or  kinds  of  articles. 

^'hen  it  stops  raining,  then  I  shall  go.     (When.^ 

What  time?     When  it  stops  raining.) 
le    walked    to    the    corner.     Then    he    spoke. 

(When?     After  he  reached  the  corner.) 
""hen,  too,  he  did  not  obey  instructions.     (In 

addition  to  the  other  facts,  he  did  not  obey 

instructions.) 
'd  rather  have  these  than  those,     (comparison) 

[209] 


Pitfalls  in  Engli^ 

Wrong:  I'd  rather  have  these  as  those.     (This 
mistake  is  often  made.) 

Pronounce  than  so  distinctly  that  it  does  not 
sound  like  then. 

ALL  RIGHT— ALL  READY— ALREADY 

Never  write  all  right  as  one  word. 

Wrong:  alright,     allright. 

Correct:  Come  over  this  evening.     All  right. 

Correct:  How  are  the  children?     All  right. 

All  ready  is  correct  at  times;  already  is  correct 
at  times. 

Correct:  Are  you  all  ready?     (everyone) 
Correct:  Mary  has  already  gone. 

Caution:  Do  not  say:  Mary  has  gone  already. 

{Already  should  precede  gone.) 
Caution:  Do  not  say  already  for  already. 

CUPFULS— PAILFULS— HANDFULS 
SPOONFULS 

If  the  same  cup,  pail,  hand,  or  spoon  is  re- 
filled, we  say  cupfuls,  pailfulsy  handfuls^  and 
spoonfuls. 

If  different  cups,  pails,  hands,  spoons  are 
filled,  it  is  correct  to  say:  two  cups  full,  three  pails 
full,  two  hands  fully  four  spoons  full, 

[210] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

FOLK— FOLKS 

folk      a  group  of  kindred  people  forming  a 

tribe  or  a  nation. 
folks     people  in  general  or  a  special  class. 

The  Indians  are  an  interesting  folk. 

Folks  often  say  what  they  do  not' 

mean.  I   familiar 

They  are  fine  folks.  |   speech. 

How  are  the  folks? 

DUTCH— GERMAN 

The  word  German  in  the  German  language  is 
Deutsch  pronounced  to  rhyme  with  boytch. 
The  word  Deutsch,  appearing  so  much  like  the 
word  Dutch,  misleads  many  persons  who  use 
the  word  Dutch  for  German.  They  say,  "He  is 
a  Dutchman,''  when  they  mean  that  he  is  a 
German. 

A  person  born  in  Holland  is  called  either  a 
Hollander  or  a  Dutchman. 

A  person  born  in  Germany  is  called  a  German, 
He  is  not  a  Dutchman. 

Do  not  say  Holland  Dutch  for  Dutch  or  Dutch- 
man. 

If  you  think  that  the  person  to  whom  you  are 
talking  does  not  know  what  you  mean  when 
[211] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

you  say  Didch,  amplify  your  remark  with  some 
comment  about  Holland. 

TOO— TWO— TO 

These  three  words  often  cause  trouble. 
Use  too  when  either  very  or  also  can  be  sub- 
stituted. 

Use  two  when  you  mean  the  number. 

Use  to  when  neither  too  nor  two  can  be  used. 

I  am  too  busy  to  see  you.     (very  busy) 

I,  too,  am  going,     (also) 

I  have  two  dollars,     (number) 

She  goes  to  the  Baptist  church.  (Too 
and    two  not  applicable) 

I,  too,  (also)  am  too  (very)  tired  to 
(neither  also  nor  very)  walk  two  (number) 
miles. 

INGENIOUS— INGENUOUS 

Ingenious  means  clever;  possessed  of  ingenuity. 
Ingenuous  means  possessed  of  the  character- 
istics of  a  child. 

An  ingenious  person  often  makes  money  by 
his  wit. 

An  ingenuous  girl  is  charming  in  her  sim- 
plicity. 

[212] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

OBSERVANT— OBSERVING 

Observant  means  watchful;  capable  of  taking 
in  details. 

Observing  means  watching. 

She   is    an    observant   person.     She    notices 
details. 

She  is  observing  my  work. 

COSTLY— COSTIVE 

Costly  means  expensive. 

Costive  means  constipated  or  causing  con- 
stipation. 

Her  jewels  were  costly. 

The  man  was  in  a  costive  condition  while  in 
the  hospital. 

Cheese  is  a  costive  food. 
Cheese  is  both  costly  and  costive.     (Costive 
is  a  word  used  only  to  one's  doctor.) 

PHASE— FAZE 

Phase  is  any  of  the  different  appearances  of 
an  object. 

Phase  may  be  used  in  connection  with  mental 
view. 

[213] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Faze  means  to  worry;  vex;  annoy,     (an  expres- 
sion used  in  the  United  States) 

The  crescent  phase  of  the  moon  is  visible  at 
certain  times. 

From  this  phase  of  the  question,  your  desire 
to  sell  is  justifiable. 

Your  bullying  can't  faze  me. 

LAVATORY— LABORATORY 

Lavatory  is  a  wash-room.     (A  small  room  con- 
taining a  wash-bowl  is  correctly  called  a  lavatory.) 
Laboratory  is  a  room  or  a  building  in  which 
certain  work  is  carried  on. 

Get  some  water  from  the  lavatory  and 
water  the  plants. 

The  doctor  and  the  chemist  experiment  in  a 
laboratory. 

VERSE— STANZA 

Verse  is  a  line  of  poetry. 

Stanza  is  a  number  of    consecutive   lines    or 
verses. 

Wrong:  The  poem  has  three  verses  of  eight  lines 

each. 
Right:     The   poem   has   three   stanzas   of  eight 

verses  each. 
Right:     The  poem  has  three  stanzas  of  eight  lines 

each. 

[214] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

The  two  preceding  sentences  mean  the 
sajne  thing.  When  you  mean  that  you  have 
read  a  group  of  lines,  do  not  say,  "I  have  read 
the  first  verse.''  That  means  that  you  have  read 
only  one  line.  Say  that  you  have  read  the  first 
stanza, 

BAR— MEASURE 

Bar  is  a  perpendicular  line  separating  music 
into  measures. 

Measure  is  all  the  notes  and  rests  included 
between  two  consecutive  bars. 

Wrong:  I  played  a  few  bars  of  the  piece  on  the 

piano. 
Right:     I  played  a  few  measures  of  the  piece  on 

the  piano. 
Right:     What  is  the  syllable  name  of  the  first 

note  after  the  second  bar? 
Right:     How    many    beats    are    there    in    each 

measure? 

DELETED— DEPLETED 

Deleted  means  taken  out,  obliterated,  erased. 
Depleted  means  reduced. 

Part  of  his  letter  was  deleted  before  the 
authorities  would  allow  him  to  send  it. 

[215] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

The  stock  is  depleted  just  now,  because  it  is 
so  late  in  the  season. 

RELIGION  OR  NATIONALITY— WHICH? 

Do  not  confuse  religion  with  nationality. 
Religion  refers  to  form  of  worship. 
Nationality  refers  to  country. 

Wrong:  I  did  not  know  that  you  were  German. 

I  thought  you  were  Jewish. 
Wrong:  I  did  not  know  that  you  w^ere  Irish.     I 

thought  you  were  Catholic. 

A  person  is  Spanish  or  German  or  French  or 
Irish  by  \drtue  of  his  nationality. 

A  person  is  Jewish  or  Catholic  or  Presbyterian 
by  virtue  of  his  religion. 

A  man  may  be  a  German  Jew,  a  Spanish  Jew, 
a  French  Jew. 

A  man  may  be  a  German  Catholic,  an  Irish 
Catholic,  a  French  Catholic. 

SWEAT— PERSPIRATION 

Animals  sweat. 

Horses  sweat. 

The  doctor  prescribed  a  sweat. 

Persons  perspire  unless  the  perspiration  is 
intense  having  been  forced  by  artificial  means 
or  through  illness.     In  such  cases  we  say  sweat. 

[216] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Vulgar:  Your  forehead  is  covered  with  sweat. 

Vulgar:  I'm  sweating. 

Vulgar:  I'm  sweaty. 

Vulgar:  My  hands  are  sweating. 

Vulgar:  My  hands  are  sweaty. 

Correct:  Keep  still  about  it.  But  if  you  must 
confide  this  important  matter  say, 
*'I'm  perspiring." 

(This  is  a  matter  of  opinion.  Some  author- 
ities say  that  it  is  finical  to  avoid  the  word  sweat. 
Most  persons  of  refinement,  however,  do  not 
use  it.) 

Be  sure  to  pronounce  correctly  the  words  per- 
spirey  perspired,  perspiring,  perspiration.  The 
first  syllable  is  p-e-r;  not  p-r-e-s. 

FARTHER— FURTHER 

To  use  these  words  interchangeably  is  not  a 
serious  violation  of  precision  of  speech.  Far, 
farther,  further,  farthest,  furthest — all  of  these  may 
be  used  in  referring  to  space  covered.  Further 
has  another  meaning.     It  means  additional. 

The  dictionary  states  that  further  means 
farther.  Further  may  be  used  for  farther;  but  it 
is  not  always  correct  to  use  farther  for  further. 
You  can  readily  see  that  when  further  means 
additional,  farther  cannot  be  used. 

See  sentences  4  and  5. 

[217] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

The  best  writers  and  speakers  use  Jar,  farther, 
farthest  in  referring  to  space.  They  use  further 
to  mean  additional  and  they  seldom  use  furthest. 

Right:     1.  How  far  did  you  walk? 

Right:  2,  She  walked /ar//ier  {or  further)  than  I. 
(two  persons) 

Right:  3.  John  walked  farthest  (or  furthest)  of 
all.     (more    than     two      persons) 

Right:  4.  I  shall  not  allow  him  to  go  to  the 
picnic;  further  (additional  punish- 
ment) than  that,  he  is  to  be  kept 
in  the  house  until  he  can  behave. 

Right:     5.  Have    you    anything  further    (addi- 
tional) to  say? 
Wrong:        Is  that  all  the  farther  you*re  going? 
Right:  Is  that  as  far  as  you  are  going? 

Farther  is  used  in  comparing  two  distances. 
See  pages  122-128. 

RELIC— RELICT 

Relic,  something  remaining,  a  keepsake. 
Relict  means   vndow.     It  is   seldom   used   to 
mean  widower. 

His  curio  cabinet  is  filled  with  interesting 
relics. 

[2l8] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Mrs.  Jones,  relict  of  John  Jones,  has  bought 
the  property. 

ARRANGEMENT— ARRAIGNMENT 

Arrangement  means  the  placing  of  things. 
Arraignment  means  accusation  in  court. 

I  like  the  arrangement  of  the  furniture  in  her 
home. 

He  was  arraigned  in  court  on  a  charge  of 
murder  in  the  first  degree, 
arraign  is  pronounced  ar-rain 

arraigned       is  pronounced  ar-razned 
arraigning      is  pronounced  ar-raining 
arraignment  is  pronounced  ar-rai?iment 

ADVISE— INFORM 

Advise  means  to  give  someone  the  benefit  of 
your  thought  regarding  a  certain  subject. 
Inform  means  to  impart  ideas  or  information. 

Wrong:  I  shall  advise  you  when  we  leave. 
Right:     I    shall    inform    you    when    we    leave. 

(impart  the  information,  tell  you) 
Right:     I  will  advise  you  when  to  plant  the  seed. 

(a    promise    to    give    advice    about 

planting) 

[219] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Right:  I  will  inform  you  when  to  plant  the  seed. 
(a  promise  to  tell  you  when  to  begin 
planting.  This  is  not  a  promise  of 
advice.) 

DIFFERENT  FROM 

not 
DIFFERENT  THAN 

A    Wrong:  This  satin  is  different  in  quality  than 

that  piece. 
B   Right:     This  satin  is  different  in  quality /rom 

that  piece. 
C    Wrong:  It  was  different  than  I  expected  it  to 

be. 
D  Right:     It  vtsls  different  from  what  1  expected 

it  to  be. 
E   Right:     I  think  that  this  piece  is  better  than 

that. 

In  sentences  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  two  articles  are 
compared. 

When  the  word  different  is  used,  use  from; 
when  different  is  not  used,  use  than. 

If,  after  the  word  different,  you  cannot  use 
from,  add  another  word  or  reconstruct  your 
sentence. 

Illustration  : 

Sentence  C.     Different  than  is  wrong. 

[220] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Sentence  T>.  After  different  from  it  was  nec- 
essary to  insert  the  word  what. 

CORRESPOND  TO— CORRESPOND  WITH 

Correspond  to  is  correct  when  you  are  speaking 
of  matching  objects. 

Correspond  with  is  correct  when  you  are  refer- 
ring to  correspondence. 

Wrong:  This  stocking  corresponds  ivith  that  one. 

(One  stocking  cannot  write  a  letter  to 

another.) 
Right:     This  stocking  corresponds  to  that  one. 

(This  stocking  matches  that  one. 
Right:     John    corresponds    ivith    Mary.     They 

enjoy  each  other's  letters. 

PERSONS— PEOPLE 

Use  persons  when  individuals  are  meant. 
Use  people  when  a  mass  of  humans  is  meant. 

Three  persons  (not  people)  sat  on  the  stage. 

Most  persons  like  the  climate  of  California. 

The   young   people   of   the    church    had   a 
meeting. 

The   American   people   are   a   mass   of   en- 
thusiasts. 

[221  ] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

WOMAN— LADY 

*Ordinarily  woman  is  preferred  to  lady. 
Do  not  say  lady-docioT.     Say  2/;oman-doctor. 
Do  not  say  wash-lady  or  wash-woman.     Say 
washerwoman, 

*If  a  child  wishes  to  report  to  his  mother  that 
there  is  a  woman  at  the  door,  unless  he  uses  a 
polite  intonation,  he  is  likely  to  sound  rude  if  he 
says  iDoman.  He  might  better  say  lady.  For 
some  reason,  however,  most  persons  prefer 
woman  to  lady. 

DOCTRESS,  INSTRUCTRESS 

Most  of  these  feminine  endings  are  now 
being  dropped. 

We  may  say  actoTy  doctor^  instructor,  regardless 
of  whether  a  man  or  a  woman  is  meant. 

HEALTHY— HEALTHFUL 

Healthy  is  applied  to  persons  and  animals. 

Healthful  is  applied  to  food  or  to  anything 
else  which  gives  health  to  persons  and  animals, 
(exercise) 

Rover  is  a  healthy  dog. 

The  man  is  healthy  and  strong. 

Exercise  is  healthful. 

[222  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Dancing  and  walking  are  healthful  exercise, 
A  healthful  climate  is  all  that  that  man  needs. 
Bread  is  a  healthful  food. 
Fresh  air  is  healthful. 
Baths  are  healthful. 

PROVIDED— PROVIDING 

Provided  means  on  condition  that  or  if. 
Providing  means  supplying. 

Many  persons  say  I  shall  go  providing  that  you 
go  with  me.     (wrong) 

They  should  say  I  shall  go  provided  that  you 
go  with  me.     (right) 

DEVICE 

Substitute: 

on  condition  that  or  supplying. 

1.  He  will  go  that  it  does  not 

rain. 
He  will  go  on  condition  that  it  does 
not  rain. 

Therefore:  He  will  go  provided  that  it  does  not 
rain. 

2.  He  is me  with  the  money. 

He    is    supplying    me    with    the 

money. 
Therefore :  He  is  providing  me  with  the  money. 

[223] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

3.  They  are  the  family  with 

food. 
They    are    supplying   the   family 
with  food. 

Therefore:        They    are    providing    the    family 
with  food. 

4.  Father  will  take  you  that 

you  behave. 
Father  will  take  you  on  condition 
thai  you  behave. 

Therefore :        Father  will  take  you  provided  that 
you  behave. 

5.  He  will  purchase  that  house 

he  has  the  money. 
He  will  purchase  that  house  on 
condition  that  he  has  the  money. 

Therefore:        He  will  purchase  that  house  pro- 
vided he  has  the  money. 

Note  :  Sometimes  the  word  that  appears  in  the 
sentence.  You  will  then  consider  provided  to 
mean  on  condition  instead  of  on  condition  that. 
(Sentences  1  and  4) 

It  is  better  English  to  use  the  word  that  in  the 
sentence.     (Sentences  1  and  4) 

[224] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

EXPECT— SUPPOSE— THINK— GUESS 

Many  persons  use  these  words  interchange- 
ably. They  have  not  exactly  the  same  mean- 
ings.    Care  must  be  exercised  in  using  them. 

Expect  always  looks  into  the  future.  What- 
ever one  expects  has  not  yet 
happened. 

Suppose  means  to  assume  as  tru£.  It  may 
refer  to  the  present,  past,  or  future. 

Think       means  to  form  an  opinion. 

Guess        means  to  hazard  an  opinion. 

CORRECT  USE  OF  EACH 
I  expect  to  go  to  New  York  next  week. 
I  suppose  I  am  unnecessarily  worried,     (pres- 
ent) 

I  suppose  I  was  unnecessarily  worried,    (past) 
I  suppose  I  shall  he  very  anxious  until  the 
operation  is  over,  (future) 

I  think  that  Lake  Erie  is  not  so  deep  as  Lake 
Ontario. 

I  guess  that  there  are  three  thousand  beans  in 
that  jar. 

Slight  differences  in  the  following  words  need 
cause  you  no  worry. 

Present  Past 

awake  awoke  or  awaked 

[  225  ] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

wake  waked  or  woke 

awaken  awakened 

Ing  form  With  hasy  have,  had 

awaking  awaked  or  awoke 

waking  waked  or  woke 

awakening  awakened 

Any  one  of  the  words  under  each  of  the  four 
headings  is  correct  in  its  proper  place. 
I  awoke  yesterday  at  six. 
I  awaked  yesterday  at  six. 
I  woke  yesterday  at  six. 
I  awakened  yesterday  at  six. 

These  are  all  sentences  expressing  action  in  the 
past. 

FEW— LESS 

Few  is  used  with  articles  which  can  be  counted. 
Less  is  used  with  articles  that  are  measured  in 
bulk. 

few  eggs  few  pennies  few  books 

less  butter  less  milk  less  water 

few  pencils  few  apples 

less  fuel  less  ointment 

STOP— STAY 

Stop  means  to  come  to  a  halt. 
Stay  means  to  remain. 
Wrong:  We  stopped  at  the  Pennsylvania  Hotel, 

[  226  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Stopped  in  this  sentence  would  be  cor- 
rect if  you  meant  to  say  that  you 
halted  there  for  a  few  moments  and 
then  went  on. 

Right:     We  stayed  at  the  Pennsylvania  Hotel. 

Right:     The  horse  stopped  in  front  of  the  house. 

LUNCH  AND  LUNCHEON 

These  words  are  interchangeable. 

1.  In  formal  social  affairs  one  is  invited  to  a 

luncheon.     (This  is  merely  a  matter  of 
custom.) 

2.  In  simple  daily  affairs  one  may  in^dte  a 

guest  to  lunch  or  to  luncheon. 

To  use  a  or  the  before  the  word  luncheon  indi- 
cates that  the  affair  is  being  given  for  several. 

To  omit  a  before  the  word  lunch  or  luncheon 
usually  indicates  an  informal  home  meal  with  or 
without  guests. 

Right:  At  lunch  today  we  were 
much  amused  by  a  story 
that  Kate  told. 

Right:  At  luncheon  the  children  be- 
haved so  badly  that  we 
sent  them  from  the  table. 

Right:  Come  to  lunch  tomorrow, 
Mary. 

Right:  Come  to  luncheon  tomor- 
row, Mary. 

[227] 


(Informal) 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Right:  I  am  giving  a  luncheon  for  Mary  in  honor 
of  her  guest,     (formal) 

O— OH 

Use  0  only  in  addressing  a  person  by  the  use 
of  his  name. 

Use  oh  at  all  other  times. 

1.  0,  John,  why  did  you  come  so  late? 

2.  Oh!     I  feel  so  bad  over  the  loss  of  the  pin. 

3.  0,  Mary!    Call  your  mother;   I  am  fainting. 

In  sentence  2  someone  is  being  addressed  but 
as  the  name  is  not  mentioned,  oh  is  correct. 

Never  write  0  with  a  small  letter. 

Never  capitalize  oh  unless  it  is  the  first  word 
of  a  sentence  or  of  a  line  of  poetry. 

UNLESS— WITHOUT 

Unless  is  followed  by  an  expression  which 
makes  a  complete  thought. 

Without  is  followed  by  an  expression  which 
does  not  make  a  complete  thought. 

Wrong:  I  will  not  go  without  you  do. 

Right:     I  will  not  go  unless  you  do.     (You  do  is 

a  complete  thought.) 
Right:     I  will  not  go  without  you. 

[228] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  He  will  not  pass  without  he  studies  very 
hard. 

Right:  He  will  not  pass  unless  he  studies  very 
hard.  {He  studies  very  hard  is  a  com- 
plete thought.) 

Right:     He  will  not  pass  without  studying  hard. 

Wrong:  We  shall  have  no  nuts  without  we  have  a 

frost. 
Right:     We  shall  have  no  nuts  unless  we  have  a 

frost.     {We  have  a  frost  is  a  complete 

thought.) 
Right:     We  shall  have  no  nuts  without  a  frost. 

ELSE 

SENTENCES  SHOWING  THE  CORRECT  USE 

1.  Have  you  seen  anybody  else  about  the 

matter? 

2.  How  else  could  he  do  it? 

3.  iHe  is  lazy^  else  I  should  help  him. 

You  will  find  authority  for  somebody's  else, 
anyone's  else. 

There  is  also  authority  for  somebody  else's, 
anyone  else's. 

Since  either  is  correct,  you  may  choose  between 
the  two;  but  most  careful  persons  prefer  and 
use  the  second  form:  else's. 

Right:  This  is  somebody  else's  umbrella. 
[229] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

TALK  TO— TALK  WITH 

To  talk  to  a  person  is  to  address  remarks  to 
him. 

He  may  reply  or  he  may  not. 

To  talk  with  a  person  is  to  address  remarks  to 
him  and  listen  to  his  replies.  When  you  talk 
with  a  person  you  expect  to  speak  and  listen  al- 
ternately. 

Mrs.  A.  to  Mr.  A.:  I   do   wish   you'd   see   that 

John  gets  up  earlier  for 
school. 

Mr.  A.  to  Mrs.  A.:  I'll    talk   to   him   about   his 

laziness. 

Mrs.  A.  to  Mr.  A.:  Has  John  decided  to  accept 

the  position? 

Mr.  A.  to  Mrs.  A.:  Not  yet;  he  is  to  talk  with 

the  manager  today  re- 
garding the  duties,  hours, 
and  salary. 

IN— INTO 

In  implies  motion  or  rest  inside  a  place. 
Into  implies  motion  from  exterior  to  interior. 

He  walked  in  the  room 

[230] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

means  that  he  walked  around  the  interior  of 
the  room. 

He  walked  into  the  room 
means  that  he  walked  from  the  exterior  (hall) 
of  the  room  to  the  interior. 

Put  the  book  into  the  desk. 
(Teachers  should  not  say,  "Put  the  book  under 
the  desk.'*     Under  the  desk  may  mean   on  the 
floor.) 

IN   THE    CmCUMSTANCES— UNDER   THE 
CmCUMSTANCES 

Both  expressions  are  correct. 

VOWELS  AND  CONSONANTS 

1.  Vowels:  a,  e,  i,  o,  u. 

2.  Consonants:  b,  c,  d,  f,  g,  h,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  p,  q, 

r,  s,  t,  V,  w,  X,  y,  z. 

TV  belongs  to  group  1  when  it  is  used  like  the 

vowel  sound  u  in  how     (hou). 
Y  belongs  to  group  1  when  it  is  used  like  the 

vowel  sound  i  in  try     (tri). 

Observe:  An  is  used  before  words  beginning 
with  the  sound  of  any  letter  in 
Group  1. 

[231] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

an  orange,  an  apple,  an  honest  man, 
an  honorable  man,  an  egg,  an  alibi, 
an  uncle,  an  island 
Honest  begins  with  h  but  the  h  is 
silent;  hence  honest  appears  to  be- 
^  gin  with  o.  It  begins  with  a  vowel 
soundy  though  it  begins  with  a  con- 
sonant; therefore  an  honest  man. 
Observe:  A  is  used  before  words  beginning 
with  the  sound  of  any  letter  in 
Group  2. 

a  horse,  a  book,  a  tree,  a  better 
effort. 

Observe:  When  the  is  used  before  words  be- 
ginning with  the  sound  of  any  letter 
in  Group  1,  it  rhymes  with  me. 
the  apple,  the  orange. 

Observe:  When  the  is  used  before  words  be- 
ginning with  the  sound  of  any  letter 
in  Group  2,  it  is  pronounced  as 
though  spelled  thu — the  (thu)  book. 


REVEREND— HONORABLE 

IN  TITLES 

The  points  to  remember  about  these  words  are : 
1.   Never  use  them  without  the  word  the, 

[232] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

2.  Do  not  capitalize  the  word  the  in  connection 

with  Reverend  and  Honorable  unless  it  is 
the  first  word  of  the  sentence. 

3.  Capitalize  reverend  and  honorable. 

4.  NEVER  USE  REVEREND  AND  HONOR- 

ABLE WITH  A  SURNAME  Gast  name) 
ALONE. 

Wrong 

I  met  Reverend  Boynton.     {The  is  omitted  and 

the  surname  is  used  alone.) 
Have  you  written  to  the  reverend  Mr.  Boynton? 

{Reverend  is  written  with  a  small  letter.) 
The  honorable  IVir.  Jones  is  present.     {Honorable 

is  written  with  a  small  letter.) 
Honorable    Tracy    cannot    be    here.     {The    is 

omitted  and  the  surname  is  used  alone.) 

Right 

I  met  the  Reverend  Mr.  Boynton. 
I  met  the  Reverend  James  Boynton. 
I  met  the  Reverend  Mr.  James  Boynton. 
I  met  the  Reverend  Dr.  James  Boynton. 
I  met  the  Reverend  J.  C.  Boynton. 

The  Honorable  Mr.  Jones  is  present. 

The  Honorable  James  Tracy  will  not  be  present. 

Note:  Read  points  1,  2,  3,  4  again. 
[233] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

DO  YOU  KNOW  HOW  TO  USE  A 
DICTIONARY? 

Experience  in  teaching  adults  has  proved  that 
an  unusual  number  do  not  know  how  to  use  a 
dictionary.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  find  the 
pronunciation  of  a  word  if  you  do  not  under- 
stand the  diacritical  marks  used  to  indicate  the 
various  sounds. 

In  purchasing  a  dictionary  be  sure  to  get  the 
best.  Some  dictionaries  have  on  the  cover 
the  name  of  a  reputable  volume  but  on  the  first 
fly  leaf  there  can  be  found  a  statement  in  very 
small  type  to  the  effect  that  the  book  is  not  the 

regular edition.     For  various  reasons 

these  books  are  of  little  or  no  use.  Sometimes 
the  diacritical  marks  are  missing;  sometimes  they 
are  others  than  those  in  daily  use;  sometimes 
words  which  have  come  into  the  language  as 
long  ago  as  ten  years  are  not  included. 

A  good  dictionary  will  help  you  to  increase 
your  vocabulary  because  of  the  number  of 
synonyms  which  it  contains.  It  will  teach 
you  spelling,  pronunciation,  meaning,  how  to 
divide  the  word  into  syllables,  the  various  inflec- 
tions, and  many  facts  about  documents,  persons, 
and  cities.  Your  language  will  be  enriched. 
Get  the  dictionary  habit. 

Having  purchased  your  dictionary,  you  must 

[234] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

first  become  familiar  with  the  numerous  diacrit- 
ical marks  which  are  fully  explained  in  the  fore 
part  of  the  book.  This  w^ill  take  much  time.  In- 
deed the  entire  introduction  should  be  carefully 
read  and  studied  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
what  all  the  abbreviations  and  various  symbols 
in  addition  to  the  diacritical  marks  mean.  One 
reading  will  not  fix  this  information.  You  will 
have  to  read  and  reread  and  then  constantly 
refer  to  the  introduction  before  you  will  use  the 
dictionary  with  ease  and  certainty.  But  you 
will  be  well  repaid  for  your  trouble ;  and  the  feel- 
ing of  certainty  that  will  be  yours  will  be  a 
source  of  gratification. 

Suppose  you  use  the  word  ainH.  Someone 
criticizes  you.  You  look  it  up  in  Webster's 
Elementary  School  Dictionary.  You  find  on 
page  14  of  the  1914  edition  (the  one  you  happen 
to  have  at  hand) : 

ain't  (ant).  Contr.  for  are  not  or  am  not;  also 
used  for  is  not; — a  vulgarism. 

If  you  know,  as  you  probably  do,  that  the 
straight  line  over  the  a  (a)  means  to  pronounce 
the  a  as  a  in  platCy  you  will  then  know  that  that 
word  is  pronounced  ain't  to  rhyme  with  paint. 
(Besides,  you  knew  how  to  pronounce  the  word 
before  you  looked  it  up.  You  are  merely  look- 
ing it  up  to  see  if  it  is  in  repute.)  You  notice 
the  abbreviation,  Contr.     You   may   not   know 

(235] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

what  that  means.  You  will  find  on  page  xvi, 
column  1,  that  contr.  is  explained  to  mean  con- 
traction. If  you  do  not  know  what  contraction 
means  you  must  look  up  the  word.  Now  you 
say  to  your  critical  friend,  "There!  I  told  you 
so.  AinH  is  in  the  dictionary."  But  your 
friend  calls  your  attention  to  the  word  vulgarism 
and  explains  to  you  what  you  would  have  found 
out  for  yourself,  had  you  looked  up  vulgarism, 
that  ainH  is  considered  common,  coarse,  and 
inelegant.  Therefore  he  was  justified  in  crit- 
icizing you. 

Suppose  that  you  looked  up  the  word  in  Funk 
and  Wagnalls'  Desk  Standard  Dictionary,  edi- 
tion of  1925,  page  24.     You  found: 

ain't,  1  ent;  2  ant.  Colloq.  am  not;  are  not. 
Illiterate  for  is  not,  has  not,  have  not.     antX. 

If  you  have  not  looked  up  the  diacritical  marks 
used  in  this  book,  you  will  think  that  e  with  the 
straight  line  over  it  (e)  is  pronounced  like  e  in 
me.  You  will  wonder  why  two  pronunciations 
are  given.  You  will  not  know  what  colloq.  means. 
You  may  not  know  what  illiterate  means  and 
the  difference  between  illiterate  and  colloquial. 
You  will  perhaps  not  know  what  ant%  means. 
Every  one  of  these  points  is  explained  in  the  fore 
part  of  the  book,  excepting  the  meaning  of  illit- 
erate which  is,  of  course,  in  the  body  of  the 
dictionary. 

[  236  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Ain't  is  only  one  of  many  words  to  be  found  in 
the  dictionary  which  are  not  to  be  used  by  per- 
sons who  wish  to  speak  with  style. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  your  interest  in  a  dic- 
tionary has  been  aroused.  ^Yhenever  you  want 
any  information,  population  of  cities,  meaning 
of  foreign  words  and  expressions,  abbreviations, 
proper  names,  tables  of  weights  and  measures, 
foreign  coinage,  go  to  your  dictionary.  If  it 
is  not  to  be  found,  you  can  always  look  elsewhere; 
but  most  likely  you  will  find  the  information 
desired.  The  dictionary  has  many  surprises 
for  you  if  you  will  but  make  it  your  friend. 

An  unabridged  dictionary  is  one  which  con- 
tains every  word  in  the  language.  An  abridged 
dictionary  is  one  containing  only  some  of  the 
words.     Abridged  means  shortened. 

If  you  can  afford  only  one,  buy  an  abridged 
edition  because  it  will  serve  most  purposes  and 
you  can  pack  it  in  your  suit-case  when  you  go 
away.  Besides  you  always  have  access  to  the 
unabridged  dictionaries  at  your  public  library. 
Ask  the  attendant  where  they  are  kept. 

PRONUNCIATION— ENUNCIATION 
VOCABULARY 

What  is  the  difference  between  pronunciation 
and  enunciation?     The  dictionary   makes  little 

[237] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

distinction  between  the  two  words;  but  usage 
has  effected  a  slight  difference.  You  may  pro- 
nounce a  word  correctly  and  not  enunciate 
distinctly.  You  may  pronounce  the  word  efect 
in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  it  to  sound  like  uffecL 
In  such  a  case  your  enunciation  is  poor. 

Correct  pronunciation  indicates  education. 
Good  enunciation  indicates  style. 

PRONUNCIATION 

Many  persons  go  through  life  blissfully  igno- 
rant of  the  fact  that  they  are  mispronouncing 
many  words.  They  pick  up  pronunciation,  one 
from  the  other,  without  regard  to  the  education 
(or  lack  of  it)  of  those  whom  they  imitate.  Even 
many  educated  persons  mispronounce  such  fre- 
quently used  words  as  inquiry^  coupon^  address, 
adult,  allies,  oleomargarine,  creek. 

ENUNCIATION 

Others  pronounce  correctly  but  do  not  give 
the  vowels  and  consonants  their  proper  values. 
They  clip  final  t's,  pronounce  words  with  ing  as 
though  they  end  with  een  (going  is  mispro- 
nounced goeen),  they  carelessly  drop  the  g, 
saying  goiiv  for  going.  A  word  ending  in  sis 
they  pronounce  in  a  slovenly  manner  so  that 
resists  becomes  resis\  Distinctly  becomes  dis- 
iinkly.     Exactly    becomes    exakly.     The    ed   in 

[238] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

asked  one  seldom  hears,  and  so  on  through  in- 
numerable examples. 

VOCABULARY 

Many  of  us  have  scores  of  words  stored  in 
our  minds  but  we  do  not  use  them.  We  keep 
them  locked  up  as  we  do  our  best  china  for  state 
occasions;  only  with  words  the  result  is  differ- 
ent— when  the  state  occasion  comes  we  forget 
to  use  them  and  they  never  become  a  part  of  our 
working  vocabulary.  We  should  have  no  state 
occasions  for  good  English.  We  should  use  our 
best  English  to  every  one,  regardless  of  his  edu- 
cation, provided  that  he  understands  our  lan- 
guage. That  we  know  the  meanings  of  many 
more  words  than  we  use  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  we  understand  practically  every  word  that 
we  meet  in  the  newspaper  or  magazine,  though 
those  same  words  are  not  to  be  heard  in  our 
daily  conversation. 

JOT  DOWN  AND  LOOK  UP 

If  you  follow  this  slogan  you  will  today  pur- 
chase a  notebook  small  enough  to  carry  with 
you  at  all  times.  Every  time  you  hear  a  new 
word  or  a  strange  pronunciation  of  a  familiar 
word  you  will  jot  it  down  and  look  it  up  at  your 
£rst  opportunity. 

[239] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Do  not  stop  with  words  alone.  Make  a  note 
of  every  new  expression  which  seems  pertinent, 
pleasing,  or  rhythmical.  Use  these  expressions 
as  soon  as  possible  until  they  seem  to  belong 
to  you.  Good  English  is  like  water  and  air. 
There  can  be  no  corner  in  the  market.  It  is  as 
free  to  you  as  to  the  most  learned  and  prosper- 
ous in  your  community. 

Use  your  little  book  when  riding  back  and 
forth  to  school  and  to  business.  Refer  to  it  at 
every  opportunity  and  see  how  many  words  and 
expressions  you  will  absorb  in  a  short  time. 
Cultivate  words;  make  them  yours. 

PITFALLS  IN  PRONUNCIATION 

No  matter  how  correct  your  grammar  may  be, 
if  your  pronunciation  is  incorrect  or  antiquated, 
your  English  will  lack  style.  A  beautiful  ser- 
mon may  be  spoiled  by  the  mispronunciation 
of  a  word;  the  confidence  of  an  educated  audi- 
ence may  be  shaken  because  the  speaker  is  care- 
less in  his  pronunciation;  an  applicant  may  not 
obtain  the  desired  position  because  of  his  mis- 
pronunciation of  a  word.  All  other  things 
being  equal,  the  one  who  pronounces  his  words 
clearly  and  correctly  makes  the  favorable  im- 
pression. 

How  much  do  you  take  for  granted  in   the 

[  240] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

matter  of  pronunciation?  If  your  minister  pro- 
nounces a  word  in  a  way  different  from  yours, 
do  you  immediately  change  your  way  to  his 
without  looking  up  the  word?  If  you  do,  you 
are  making  a  great  mistake.  He  is  an  author- 
ity on  religion,  not  on  English;  though  of  course 
we  do  look  to  the  pulpit  for  good  English.  If 
you  wish  to  be  sure  about  a  word,  consult  your 
dictionary. 

Some  of  the  following  words  are  so  simple 
that  you  will  w^onder  at  their  presence.  Those 
are  the  very  words  which  you  are  perhaps  mis- 
pronouncing. The  fact  that  they  are  recorded 
here  indicates  that  there  is  something  unusual 
about  them  and  that  many  persons — even 
among  the  well  educated — are  mispronouncing 
them. 

A  few  of  the  words  have  two  correct  pronun- 
ciations. The  first  one  given  in  the  dictionary 
is  conceded  to  be  preferable.  For  that  reason 
I  have  usually  given  but  one — the  first.  Do 
not  bother  your  head  about  the  second  one  un- 
less you  wish  to  decide  a  dispute  regarding  pro- 
nunciation. (Then — I  say  this  facetiously — 
if  you  look  far  enough,  you  will  find  authority 
for  almost  anything.) 

You  will  probably  wonder  why  it  is  that  I 
am  showing  pronunciation  without  the  use  of 
diacritical  marks.     It  is  because  I  wish  to  make 

[241] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

the  correct  pronunciation  of  certain  words  so 
clear  that  even  those  who  do  not  understand  the 
many  dots,  dashes,  and  curves  employed  in  the 
dictionary  may  grasp  my  meaning. 

If  you  do  not  know  how  to  interpret  the  vari- 
ous marks  used  in  a  dictionary,  you  would  not 
be  able  to  interpret  them  in  this  book.  You 
will  feid  the  method  here  employed  so  easy  to 
understand  and  you  will  experience  so  many  sur- 
prises that  you  will  be  stimulated  to  look  up 
many  more  words  as  you  meet  them  in  your 
reading. 

Illustration: 

Webster's  dictionary  gives  you  the  following 
under  the  word  oleomargarine: 

(o'le-o-mar'  ga-rine   -o-mar'-ga-ren) 

You  have  a  general  idea  of  its  pronunciation. 
Unless  you  know  the  meaning  of  the  marks  and 
the  meaning  of  the  absence  of  marks  {g  with- 
out a  mark  over  or  under  it  is  like  g  in  get) 
in  connection  with  the  letters  of  this  word,  they 
are  of  no  value  to  you.  Instead  of  showing 
all  the  diacritical  marks,  I  have  made  clear  to 
you  that  the  g  sounds  like  the  g  in  Margaret. 
See  page  ^55, 

You  are  surprised.  Why.^^  You  have  taken 
it  for  granted  because  your  grocer  called  this 
article  "oleomarjarine,"  that  there  was  no  need  of 

[242] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

looking  up  the  word  in  the  dictionary.  Never 
take  anyone's  word  for  pronunciation.  Begin 
today  to  interest  yourself  in  words.  Buy  a  good 
dictionary  and  at  once  begin  to  familiarize  your- 
self with  the  meaning  of  each  mark.  Every 
time  you  look  up  a  word  refer  to  the  key  (ex- 
planation of  marks)  in  the  fore  part  of  the  book. 
Finally  you  wall  have  mastered  every  one. 

You  will  now  read  the  words  which  are  used 
most  commonly  in  everyday  conversation,  many 
of  which  are  mispronounced  by  nine  out  of  ten 
persons.  Most  of  the  words  in  this  list  are 
thoroughly  familiar  to  you;  they  are  not  words 
about  which  you  have  no  idea.  For  that  reason 
I  have  merely  pointed  out  to  you  the  syllable 
which  perhaps  you  have  been  mispronouncing 
and  sho\sTi  you  its  correct  pronunciation.  The 
other  syllables  in  the  words  I  have  disregarded. 

Authority — Webster's  International  Diction- 
ary. 

PRONUNCIATION 

of  the  following  words  is  shown  by  a  method 
which  can  be  understood  by  all.  No  diacritical 
marks  are  used.  If  the  usual  mistake  is  one  of 
accent,  the  mistake  and  the  correction  are  shown 
by  the  use  of  capitals.  The  capitalized  syllable 
is  to  be  stressed. 

[243] 


inquiry 


Pitfalls  in  English 

ILLUSTRATION 

wrong:  IN-qui-ry 
right:     in-QUIR-y 


If  the  usual  mistake  is  one  of  vowel  or  consonant 
sound,  the  correction  is  shown  by  spelling,  or 
by  giving  a  syllable  or  a  word  with  which  the 
correct  pronunciation  of  the  mispronounced 
syllable  or  word  rhymes.  No  attention  in  such 
cases  is  paid  to  accent. 

In  giving  correct  pronunciation  often  the 
word  is  divided  incorrectly  to  make  clearer  the 
pronunciation. 

ILLUSTRATION 

accompaniment 

Wrong:  ac-com-ple-ment 
Right:     ac-company-ment 

In  order  to  show  that  you  will  hear  the  word 
company  if  you  pronounce  the  word  accompani- 
ment correctly,  the  word  is  divided  so  as  to  show 
the  word  company  (ac-company-ment). 

In  the  word  December  the  accent  would  prob- 
ably never  be  misplaced.  The  difficulty  here  is 
that  many  persons  say  De-zem-her.  Pitfalls  of 
this  sort  are  pointed  out,  but  the  accent  is  not 
shown. 

[244] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Only  preferred  pronunciations  found  in  Web- 
ster's International  Dictionary  are  given  in 
the  third  column. 

Many  persons  consult  a  dictionary  only  when 
they  wish  to  know  the  meaning  of  a  word.  After 
studying  the  following  words  you  will  see  the 
necessity  of  constantly  referring  to  the  diction- 
ary for  pronunciation  and  spelling  as  well  as  for 
meaning. 

Even  though  you  fully  understand  the  method 
here  used  in  showing  correct  pronunciation,  you 
ought  to  begin  at  once  to  master  the  diacritical 
marks  in  the  dictionary. 

Then  you  will  be  able  to  avoid  such  mistakes 
as  pronouncing  heat  to  rhyme  with  met  (het). 
You  will  understand  that  **heat,  het"  says 
briefly  but  plainly  to  you,  through  the  short  line 
over  the  e  (e), 

''Heat  rhymes  with  meet.'* 

Begin  today  to  master  the  diacritical  marks. 

Wrong  Right 

abdomen  AB-do-men  ab-DO-men 

accelerator  ex-il-er-a-tor  ak-sel-er-a-tor 

accessible  as-sess-i-ble  ak-sess-i-ble 

accessories  as-sess-c-ries  ak-sess-o-ries 

acclimate  AC-cli-mate  ac-CLI-mate 

When  you  pronounce  this  word  correctly 
you  hear  the  word  climate. 

[  245  ] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


accompaniment 
accurate 
across 
address 


adjective 
adult 


adversary 

ad-VER-sa-ry 

aeroplane 

a-re-o-plane 

affect 

uf-fect 

affluence 

af-FLU-ence 

again 

a-gane 

alias 

a-LIE-us 

alienation 

a-lin-e-a-tion 

alimentary 

el-e-men-ta-ry 

allies 

AL-lies 

almond 

al-mond 

aluminum 

al-oo-min-um 

antarctic 

ant-ar-tic 

applicable 

ap-PLIK-a-bl 

architect 

arch-i-tekt 

arctic 

ar-tik 

arithmetic 

a-rif-me-tic 

Wrong  Right 

ak-kom-ple-ment  ak-company-ment 

ak-ka-rat  ak-u-rat 

a-crosst  a-cross 

AD-dress  ad-DRESS 

This  word  is  always  accented  on  the  sec- 
ond syllable  whether  it  means  a  sermon 
or  the  superscription  on  an  envelope, 
ad-ja-tiv  ad-jek-tiv 

ADD-dult  ad-DULT 

Say  the  word  adulterate  and  you  will  have 
a  good  idea  of  how  to  pronounce  the 
word  adult. 

ADD-ver-sa-ry 

a-er-o-plane 

af-fect 

AF-flu-ence 

a-gen 

Again  rhymes 

with  a  hen. 
A-lee-us 
ale-yen-a-tion 
al-i-men-ta-ry 
al-LIES 
ah-mund 

Sound  a  as  in  ah; 
I  is  silent, 
al-yu-min-um 
ant-ark-tic 
AP-plik-a-bl 
ar-ki-tekt 
ark-tik 
a-rith-me-tic 

[246] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


Wrong 


Right 


asinine 

ass-mne 

ass-in-mne 

Observe  the  spell- 
ing in  column  1: 
only  one  s. 

asked 

ask,  ast 

ahskt 

Yesterday  I  ahskt  (not  ask)  him  to  go. 

asparagus 

as-par-a-grass 

as-par-a-gus 

asphalt 

ash-fault 

ASS-falt 

{al  as  in  alley) 

ate 

et  (poor) 

ate 

(rhymes  with  plate) 

athletic 

ath-a-let-ic 

ath-let-ic 

attacked 

at-tak-ted 

at-takt 

aunt 

ant 

ahnt 

automobile 

aw-to-mo-bul 

aw-to-MO-bil  or 
aw-to-mo-BEEL 

aversion 

a-ver-zhun 

a-ver-shun 

Axminster 

Ax-min-is-ter 

Ax-min-ster 

bade 

bayed 

bad 

because 

be-kuz 

be-kaws 

been 

ben 

bin  and  bean 

believe 

ba-lieve 

be-lieve 

blase 

blaze 

blah-zay 

blue 

blyu 

bloo 

bona  fide 

bonafied 

bo-na  fi-de 

brassiere 

brah-zeer 

brah-zyair 

brewery 

bu-er-y 

broo-er-y 

bronchial 

(  bron-i-kal 

bron-ki-al 

(  brown-i-kal 

(o  as  in  on) 

broom 

brum 

broom 

(rhymes       with 
boom) 

[247] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Wrong 

Right 

bureau 

byu-ry 

byu-row 

burglar 

bur-gu-lar 

burg-Iar 

business 

bus-i-ness 

biz-ness 

calliope 

CAL-li-ope 

cal-LI-o-pe 

Calvary 

Cav-al-ry 

Cal-va-ry 

can 

kin 

kan 

carton 

car-TOON 

CAR-tn 

cartoon 

car-TOON 

celery 

sal-a-ry 

sel-er-y 

cello 

cel-lo 

chel-lo 

{ch  as  in  chair) 

cemetery 

cim-e-ter-y 

cem-e-ter-y 

children 

chil-dern 

chil-dren 

chimney 

chim-ly 

chim-ny 

chiropodist 

sha-rop-o-dist 

ky-rop-o-dist 

chrysanthemum 

.  kris-an-the-um 

kris-an-the-mum 

circuit 

sir-ku-it 

sir-kit 

clique 

click 

cleek 

column 

col-yum 

col-um 

communist 

com-MU-nist 

COM-mu-nist 

community 

q-mu-ni-ty 

cum-mu-ni-ty 
(cum  sounds    like 
come) 

comptroller 

comp-trol-ler 

con-trol-ler 

conduit 

con-du-it 

con-dit 

contractor 

CON-tract-or 

con-TRAC-tor 

conversant 

con-VER-sant 

CON-ver-sant 

corespondent 

cor-re-spon-dent 

co-re-spon-dent 
(co  rhymes  with 

go) 

cornet 

cor-o-net 

cor-net 

correspondent 

co-re-spon-dent 

cor-re-spon-dent 

[248] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


Wrong 


Right 


coupon 

q-pon 

coo-pon 

cousin 

cuz-int 

cuz-in 

creek 

krick 

kreek 

culinary 

cull-in-a-ry 

q-lin-ar-y 

cuticle 

cut-i-cle 

q-ti-cle 

cyclamen 

sigh-kla-men 

sick-la-men 

data 

dat-ta 

day-ta 

daub 

dab 

dawb 

deaf 

deef 

def 

(rhymes  with  /) 

decadence 

DEC-a-dence 

de-KAY-dence 

December 

De-zem-her 

De-cem-ber 

decorous 

de-CHORUS 

DEK-o-rus 

detail 

DE-tail 

de-TAIL 

dew 

do 

dyu 

diamond 

dy-mond 

di-a-mond 

didn't 

dint 

did-ent 

diploma 

die-plo-ma 

dip-lo-ma 

dirigible 

di-RIDGE-i-ble 

DIR-i-gi-ble 

discern 

dic-cern 

di-zern 

discretion 

dis-kre-sbun 

dis-kresh-un 
{hresh          rhymes 
with  mesh) 

discutant 

dis-kut-ant 

dis-q-tant 

distinctly 

dis-tink-ly 

dis-tinkt-ly 

drawer 

draw 

drawr 

drowned 

drown-dead 

dround 

dues 

doos 

dyus 

duke 

dook 

dyuke 

duty 

dooty 

dyu-ty 

education 

ed-ju-ca-tion 

ed-u-ca-tion 

effect 

uf-fect 

ef-fect 

[249] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Wrong 

Right 

eggs 

aigs 

egs 

(rhymes  with  legs) 

electricity 

e-lec-triz-i-ty 

G-lec-tric-ity 

elementary 

al-i-men-ta-ry 

el-e-men-ta-ry 

elm 

el-um 

elm 

(one  syllable) 

Elmwood 

El-um-wood 

Elm-wood 

encomium 

en-co-ni-um 

en-co-me-um 

engine 

en-jine 

en-jin 

(i  as  in  pin) 

envelope 

on-va-lope 

EN-vel-ope 

environment 

en-vi-rah-ment 

en-vi-ron-ment 

escalator 

es-q-la-tor 

es-ka-la-tor 

evening 

ev-en-ing 

eve-ning 

exactly 

ex-ak-ly 

ex-act-ly 

executive 

ex-ek-a-tive 

ex-ek-you-tive 

experiment 

ex-spear-ment 

ex-per-i-ment 
{per  rhymes  with 
her) 

exquisite 

ex-QUIS-ite 

EX-quis-ite 

facsimile 

fass-si-mile 

fak-sim-i-le 

familiar 

far-mil-yar 

fa-mil-yar 

February 

Feb-u-a-ry 

Feb-ru-a-ry 

fellow 

fel-la 

fel-low 

fete 

feet 

fate 

fiance  (man) 

fie-ants 

fee-ahn-say 

fiancee  (woman) 

fie-ants 

fee-ahn-say 

figure 

fig-ger 

fig-yure 

fill 

fill-um 

film 

(one  syllable) 

finance 

FIE-nants 

fin-NANTS 
(fin    rhymes    with 
tin) 

[250] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


Wrong 

Right 

financial 

fie-nan-shal 

fin-nan-shal 
(Jin   rhymes    with 
tin) 

flute 

flyute 

floot 

forbade 

for-bayd 

for-bad 

forehead 

fore-head 

fahr-ed 

formally 

for-mer-ly 

for-mal-ly 

formerly 

for-mal-ly 

for-mer-ly 

formidable 

for-MID-a-bl 

FOR-mid-a-bl 

from 

frum 

frahm 

gap  (to  yawn) 

gap  (a  as  in  at)  [Poor] 

gahp  or  gape 

geography 

jog-ra-fy 

ge-og-ra-fy 

get 

git 

get 

gifts 

giffs 

gifts 

gist 

gist 

jist 

glory 

glaw-ry 

glow-ry 

gluten 

glut-tn 

gloo-tn 

going 

goin'  and  go-een 

go-ing 

(ng  as  in  ring) 

government 

guv-er-ment 

guv-ern-ment 

gratis 

grat-tis 

gray-tis 

grievous 

greav-i-us 

greav-us 

grimace 

GRIM-ace 

grim-ACE 

guarantee 

gahr-an-tee 

gar-an-tee 

Guido 

Gee-do 

Gwe-do 
(0  as  in  go) 

guitar 

ga-tar 

git-tar 

gums 

gooms 

gums 

{gums  rhymes  with 
hums) 

half 

haf 

hahf 

(a  as  in  damp) 

(a  aa  in  ah) 

[251] 

Pitfalls  in  English 


hallelujah 

handkerchief 

hang 


heat 

height 

heinous 

heretic 

hiccough 

history 

hospitable 

houses 

hover 


Wrong 
hal-le-lool-ya 
hand-ker-chief 
hanguh 
Foreigners     should 

nounce  correctly 

261-264. 
het 

heighth 

he-nus 

he-RET-ic 

hik-cough 

his-try 

hos-PIT-a-ble 

how-ces 


hahver 


Huron 

Hutchinson 

hydrangea 

your-'n 

Hutch-a-son 

hy-drain-ja 

idea 
if 

i-dear 
iv 

impious 
impostor 
impotent 
indefatigable 

im-PIE-us 
i  m-post-or 
i  m-PO-tent 
in-de-FATK 

Right 
hal-e-loo-ya 
hank-ker-chif 
hang 
be    careful     to    pro- 
final  ng.     See  pages 

heet 

(rhymes  with  meet) 

hite 

(rhymes  with  mite) 

hay-nus 

HER-e-tic 

hik-kup 

his-to-ry 

HOS-pit-a-ble 

how-zes 

(rhymes  with 

rouses) 
huver 
(rhymes  with 

cover) 
Hew-ron 
Hutch-in-son 
hy-drain-je-a 

i-de-a 

if 

IMP-e-us 

im-pahst-or 
IM-po-tent 


You  will   not  hear  the  word  fatigue  if  you 
pronounce  this  word  correctly. 

[252] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


Indian 
indisputable 


inexplicable 
influence 
ingenious 
ingenuous 


inquiry 


instead 

instincts 

interests 

intricate 

invariably 

iodoform 

iron 

irrefragable 

irrelevance 

irrelevant 

irrevokable 

Israel 

Italian 

italics 

itinerary 

January 
Johns  Hopkins 
jugular 
just 


Wrong  Right 

In-jun  Ind-di-an 

in-dis-PUTE-a-bl  in-DIS-pu-ta-bl 

You  will  not  hear  the  word  dispute  if  you 

pronounce  this  word  correctly. 


in-ex-PLICK-a-bl 
in-FLU-ents 

Do  not  confuse  these 
two  words. 


in-EX-pli-ca-bl 
IN-flu-ents 
in-JEAX-yus 
in-JEN-u-us 
(Jen   rhymes   with 
hen) 

IN-qua-ry  in-QUIR-y 

If  you    are  pronouncing    this  word  cor- 
rectly you  will  hear  the  word  inquire. 

in-stid 

in-stinks 

in-ter-es 

in-TRICK-et 

in-var-a-bly 

i-o-do-foam 

i-run 

ir-re-FRAG-a-bl 

ir-rev-e-lance 

ir-rev-e-lant 

ir-re-VOK-a-bl 

Iz-re-el 

eye-tal-3'an 

eye-tal-ics 

i-tin-er-y 


Jen-u-a-ry 
John  Hopkins 
jug-u-lar 
jest 

[253] 


in-sted 

in-stinkts 

in-ter-ests 

IN-tri-cut 

in-va-ri-a-bly 

i-o- do-form 

i-ern 

ir-REF-ra-ja-bl 

ir-rel-e-vance 

ir-rel-e-vant 

ir-REV-o-ka-bl 

Iz-rah-el 

It-al-yan 

it-al-ics 

i-tin-er-a-ry 

Jan-u-a-ry 
Johns  Hopkins 
Jew-gu-Iar 
just 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Wrong 

Right 

kept 

kep 

kept 

kerchief 

ker-chief 

ker-chif 

kerosene 

ker-o-SENE 

KER-o-sene 

khaki 

cack-e 

cah-ke 

(a  as  in  ah) 

kindergarten 

kinder-garden 

kinder-garten 

knew 

noo 

nyu 

Ku-Klux 

Klu-Klux 

Kyu-Klux 

laboratory 

lava-to-ry 

lab-o-ra-to-ry 

lamentable 

la-MENT-a-bl 

LAM-en-ta-bl 

larynx 

lar-nicks 

lar-inks 
(a  as  in  at) 

laugh 

laff 

lahf 

(a  as  in  ah) 

lava 

lav-a 

lah-va 

(a  as  in  ah) 

lavatory 

lab-ra-to-ry 

lav-a-to-ry 

learned 

learnd 

learn-ed 

(a  learned  man) 

leave  of  absence 

leaf  of  absence 

leave  of  absence 

left 

leff 

left 

length 

lenth 

length 

library 

li-ber-ry 

li-bra-ry 

licorice 

lick-o-rish 

lick-o-riss 

lifts 

liffs 

lifts 

lingerie 

law-zher-ie 

lan-zher-ie 
(a  as  in  an) 

luxury 

lugs-u-ry 

lucks-u-ry 

machinations 

mash-in-a-shuns 

mak-in-a-shuns 

maintenance 

main-TAIN-ance 

MAIX-ten-ance 

marabou 

mar-a-bow 

mar-a-boo 

[254] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


maratime 

massacred 

massacring 

mausoleum 

mayonnaise 

mischievous 

misled 

municipal 

museum 

mush-room 

nasturtium 

neuralgia 

new 

New  Orleans 

Niagara 

Northampton 

nucleus 

nude 

obesity 
oleomargarine 


panacea 

pantomime 

paprika 

Parliament 

partition 

partner 

pedestal 

peony 

percolator 

perspiration 


Wrong 
mar-a-time 
mas-sa-creed 
mas-sa-ker-ing 
maw-SO-le-um 
my-o-naze 
mis-CHIEV-i-ous 
my-zeld 
mew-ni-SIP-pl 
MEW-se-um 
mush-roon 

nastur-^zon 

noo-ral-a-gy 

noo 

Noo  Or-LEE-ans 

Ni-ag-ra 
North-hampton 
noo-cle-us 
nood 

o-bee-si-ty 
o-le-o-mar-ja-reen 


pa-NASS-e-a 

pan-to-mine 

pap-REE-ka 

Parl-ya-ment 

pa-ti-tion 

pard-ner 

pe-DES-tl 

pie-nee 

per-q-la-tor 

pres-pi-ra-tion 

[255] 


Right 
mar-a-tim 
mas-sa-kerd 
mas-sa-kring 
maw-so-LE-um 
may-o-naze 
MIS-chiv-us 
miss-led 
mew-NIS-i-pI 
mu-SE-um 
mush-rooTtt 

nsiS-inT-tium 

nyu-ral-ge-a 

nyu 

Nyu-OR-le-ans 

Ni-ag-a-ra 

North-amp-ton 

nyu-cle-us 

nyude 

o-bess-i-ty 
o-le-o-mar-ga-reen 
(g  as  in  Margaret) 

pan-a-SEE-a 

pan-to- mime 

POP-ree-ka 

Par-li-ment 

par-ti-tion 

part-ner 

PED-es-tl 

PEE-o-ny 

per-ko-la-tor 

per-spi-ra-tion 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Wrong 


Right 


perspire 

pres-pi-er 

per-spi-er 

petition 

par-ti-tion 

pe-ti-tion 

petticoat 

ped-di-coat 

pet-ti-coat 

Phillips  Brooks 

Phillip  Brooks 

Phillips  Brooks 

photograph 

for-to-graph 

fo-to-graf 

picture 

pitch-er 

pik-ture 

Pilgrims 

Pil-grums 

Pil-grims 

pimento 

pa-men-to 

pim-en-to 

pistachio 

pis-tash-eo 

pis-tay-she-o 
or  pis-tah-she-o 

plover 

plah-ver 

pluv-er 

(rhymes  with  lover 

poem 

pome 

po-em 

poinsettia 

poin-set-ta 

poin-set-te-a 

pompon 

pom-pom 

pom-pon 

preferable 

pre-FER-a-bl 

PREF-er-a-bl 

Presbyterian 

Prez-pa-ter-e-an 

Prez-ba-ter-e-an 

prescription 

per-scrip-tion 

pre-scrip-tion 

presentation 

pree-zen-ta-tion 

prez-en-ta-tion 

probably 

prob-a-ly 

prob-a-bly 

prohibition 

pro-ib-i-shun 

pro-hib-i-shun 

(  per-nun-ci-a-tion 

pro-nun- ci-SL-tion 

pronunciation 

(  pro-nown-ci-a-tion 

pumpkin 

punk-in 

pump-kin 

quart 

kort 

kwart 

quarter 

korter 

kwart-er 

quay 

kway 

kee 

radish 

reddish 

rad-ish 

raspberry 

raws-berry 

raz-berry 
(a  as  in  at) 

reallv 

ree-ly 

re-al-ly 

[256] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


Wrong 

recognize 

rek-a-nize 

refectory 

re-frak-to-ry 

regardless 

ir-re-gard-less 

renascent 

re-nay-cent 

repast 

RE-past 

retinue 

ret-in-oo 

rheum 

rheumatics 

The  first  sylla 

rheumatism 

The  first  sylk 

rid 

red 

ring 

ringk 

rinse 

Robinson 

robust 

romance 

room 

Roosevelt 


root 
route 


Right 
rek-og-nize 
re-fek-to-ry 
re-gard-Iess 
re-NASS-ent 
re-PAST 
ret-in-you 
Rheum  rhymes 
with  boom. 
rhymes  with  who. 

roo-mat-iks 
rhymes  with  who. 
roo-ma-tism 
rid 
ring 

If   you  are  a  foreigner,  ask   an  educated 
American  to  pronounce  for  you  a  few 
of  the  words  ending  with  ng;  ring,  sing, 
among,  bring,  etc.  See  pages  261-264. 
reuse  and  wrench  rints 

Rob-a-son  Rob-in-son 

ROW-bust  row-BUST 

ROW-mants  row-MANTS 

Room  rhymes  with  boom. 
Rews-velt  Rose-a-velt 

Some  authorities  favor  slighting  the  first 
e  in  Roosevelt,  making  the  word  sound 
almost  like  Rose-velt. 
Root  rhymes  with  boot, 
rout  root 

(rhymes  with  boot) 


sacrilegious 
said 


sak-re-lij-us 
sayd 

[257] 


sak-ri-/ee-jus 
sed 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Wrong 


Right 


says 

saiz 

sez 

a^r^Tf^^  JJ  FV 

j  sek-a-ter-ry 

sek-re-ter-ry 

oCi^iCLttr^ 

(  sec-u-ter-ry 

secretive 

SEE-cre-tive 

se-KREE-tiv 

sergeant 

sur-jent 

sar-jent 

similar 

sim-u-Iar 

sim-i-lar 

sleek 

slick 

sleak 

slept 

slepp 

slept 

soot 

sut 

soot 

(rhymes  with  boot) 

soprano 

so-pran-no 

so-prah-no 

Southampton 

South-hampton 

South-amp-ton 

statue 

stat-yute 

stat-you 

status 

statt-us 

stay-tus 

steady 

stid-dy 

sted-dy 

stew 

stoo 

styu 

stomach 

stom-ik 

stom-uk 

strength 

strenth 

strength 

(ng  as  in  ring) 

student 

stoo-dent 

styu- dent 

study 

1  sted-dy 
\  stid-dy 

stud-y 

substitute 

sub-sti-toot 

sub-sti-tyute 

suggest 

sud-jest 

sug-jest 

(sug  rhymes  with 
rug) 

suggestion 

sud-jest-shun 

sug-jest-chun 
(sug  rhymes  with 
rug) 

suggestive 

sud-jes-tive 

sug-jes-tive 
(sug  rhymes  with 
rug) 

suit 

soot 

syute 

[258] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


Wrong 

Right 

suite 

soot 

sweet 

superfluous 

'  su-per-FLOO-us 

1^  su-per-fa-lus 

syu-PER-floo-us 

surprise 

sup-prize 

sur-prize 

swept 

swep 

swept 

swollen 

swullen 

swo-len 
(o  as  in  go) 

tassel 

taw-sel 

tass-el 

telephone 

tel-e-fome 

tel-e-fone 

tenet 

tea-net 

ten-et 

theater 

the-AY-ter 

THE-a-ter 

tiny 

tee-ny 

ti-ny 

{i  as  in  pie) 

tomato 

to-mat-o 

i  to-may-to 
I  to-mah-to 

Tuesday 

Toosday 

Tyusday 

tulip 

too-lip 

tyu-lip 

turgid 

tur-gid 

tur-jid 

ty 

twen-dy 

twen-ty 

(as      in      twenty. 

thirty,  etc.) 

unkempt 

un-kept 

un-kempt 

unless 

onless 

un-less 

until 

on-til 

un-til 

used 

ust 

youzd 

usually 

you-zhal-ly 

you-zhu-al-ly 

utensil 

u-tin-sil 

u-ten-sil 

valet 

Val-et  is  used  now 

in  preference  to  val-a 

variegated 

var-i-ga-ted 

var-i-a-ga-ted 

vaudeville 

vaw-da-ville 

vod-vill 

(o  as  in  go) 


[259] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Wrong 

Right 

version 

ver-zion 

ver-shun 

viaduct 

vi-a-dock 

vi-a-dukt 

vice  versa 

vice  ver-sa 

vi-sa  ver-sa 

Victrola 

Vik-tor-o-Ia 

Vik-tro-la 

victuals 

vik-tu-als 

vit-tls 

violet 

vi-let 

vi-o-let 

violoncello 

vi-o-lin-chel-lo 

t>e-o-/on^-chel-lo 
(see  cello) 

visor 

vizz-or 

vy-zr 

(y  as  in  my) 

vitals 

vit-tls 

vy-tls 

(y  as  in  my) 

•washed 

warsht 

wahsht 

"Wednesday 

Wed-ens-day 

Wens- day 

Westminster 

West-min-is-ter 

West-min-ster 

whole 

hull 

hole 

wistaria 

wis-teer-i-a 

wis-tair-i-a 

xylophone 

zill-o-fone 

zie-lo-fone 
(zie   rhymes    with 
pie) 

yea 

yee 

yay 

(rhymes  with  pay) 

yeast 

east 

yeast 

yellow 

yel-la 

yel-low 

yonder 

yun-der 

yahn-der 

zinc 

sink 

zink 

zither 

zit-ter 

zith-er 

zoological 

zoo-log-i-cal 

zo-o-log-i-cal 
(first  0  as  in  toe) 

zoology 

zoo-ol-o-gy 

260] 

zo-ol-o-gy 
(first  0  as  in  toe) 

How  to  Avoid  Them 

ING— TH— WH 

K  you  were  not  born  in  America,  if  you  are  of 
foreign  parentage,  even  though  born  in  America, 
or  if  you  associate  much  with  foreigners,  care- 
fully 

READ  THE  FOLLOWING: 

Do  not  take  it  for  granted  just  because  you 
have  received  a  good  education  in  your  own 
country  or  have  gone  to  a  high  school  or  a  col- 
lege in  this  country,  that  you  are  pronouncing 
your  words  correctly.  Long  words  easily 
divided  into  small  syllables  are  less  likely  to  be 
mispronounced  than  short  words  having  cer- 
tain combinations  of  which  you  should  beware. 

PAY  ESPECLU.  ATTENTION  TO 

1.  words  containing      ing — going 

2.  words  containing      th — this 

3.  words  containing      wh — what 

Perhaps  you  do  not  know  that  you  are  having 
trouble  with  such  words.  Your  friends  are  too 
polite  to  tell  you  of  your  incorrect  pronunciation 
which,  by  the  way,  may  be  hampering  you  in 
both  the  business  and  the  social  world. 

Point  1 
ING 
Why  should  words  with  ing  offer  any  diffi- 
culty.'    Because  in  the  conscientious  effort  of 

[261] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

your  teachers  to  force  you  to  pronounce  inn-, 
too  much  was  made  of  g.  The  result  is  that 
many  of  you  say  thingk  for  thing,  ringk  for  rmg, 
etc. 

In  order  to  correct  this  diflficulty  other  teachers 
with  the  best  of  intention  have,  in  eliminating 
the  sound  of  g  at  the  end  of  these  words,  per- 
mitted you  to  say  goeen  for  going,  comeen  for 
coming,  icalkeen  for  walking.  This  error  of  pro- 
nunciation is  just  as  bad  as  the  other. 

Going  is  not  go-een;  it  is  not  go-ingh.  It  is 
go-ing. 

Do  not  omit  the  g  as  in  go-een. 

Do  not  pronounce  g  following  n  {thing)  as 
you  pronounce  final  g  without  n  (flag). 

Try  this  device:  Ignore  the  g.  Think  of  the 
ng  together  as  one  sound.  In  pronouncing  a 
word  that  contains  ing  (middle  or  final)  allow 
the  tongue  to  hit  the  roof  of  the  forward  part  of 
the  mouth.  Hold  it  there  to  prevent  its  assist- 
ance in  uttering  the  additional  sound  of  k  which 
you  are  trying  to  eliminate.  If  you  allow  the 
tongue  to  drop  before  you  have  finished  the 
word,  you  will  find  it  diflBcult  to  correct  your 
error.  Those  who  have  no  trouble  with  these 
words,  of  course,  need  not  resort  to  this  device. 

Test:  Put  your  thumb  and  first  finger  to 
your  throat  when  practicing  a  word 
[262] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

with  ing.  If  you  feel  a  jerk,  you  are 
saying  it  wrong;  if  you  do  not,  you 
are  more  than  likely  correct. 

The  one  way  to  be  sure  that  you  are  pro- 
nouncing these  words  correctly  is  to  ask  some- 
one who  speaks  well  to  listen,  by  standing  very 
close  to  you.  He  will  tell  you  if  he  hears  that 
unpleasant  guh.  If  he  does,  eliminate  it  as  soon 
as  possible. 

Pronounce  these  words  daily  very  slowly  and 
attentively  until  you  have  mastered  the 
difficulty : 


kmg 

gomg 

ring 

coming 

sing 

jumping 

bring 

ringing 

sling 

running 

thing 

walking 

dusting 

swimming 

cleaning 

diving 

practicing 

floating 

arguing 

sleeping 

discussing 

dreaming 

dressing 

eating 

undressing 

drinking 

drilling 

writing 

marching 

reading 

washing 

spelling 

[263] 

Pitfalls  in  English 


bathing 

studying 

brushing 

cooking 

shining 

sewing 

obeying 

knitting 

disobeying 

darning 

tearing 

mending 

cutting 

basting 

typing 

advertising 

dancing 

firing 

acting 

lighting 

rehearsing 

making 

looking 

baking 

hearing 

cooking 

seeing 

frying 

tasting 

boiling 

smelling 

broiling 

touching 

stewing  (styu-ing) 

feeling 

steaming 

driving 

simmering 

riding 

sweeping 

doing 

scrubbing 

among  us  (not  among  gus) 


Point  2 
TH 

Many  of  you  say,  "I  simply  cannot  pronounce 
words  with  th.'*      You  say  dis  for  this,  dat  for 

[264] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

ihaty  mudder  for  mother^  and  through  these  errors 
mar  your  speech  which  may  be  otherwise  correct. 
For  you  there  is  this  device.  Every  time  you 
come  to  a  word  with  th  at  the  beginning,  in  the 
middle,  or  at  the  end,  put  your  tongue  between 
the  teeth  and  out  beyond  the  lips  (way  out  so 
that  you  can  see  it  when  you  stand  before  a 
mirror)  at  the  moment  of  pronouncing  the  ih. 
In  other  words,  stick  your  tongue  out. 

ILLUSTRATION 
mother  (pronounced  muth-er) 
muth  (tongue  out)  er 
Pronounce  each  one  of  the  following  several 
times  every  day  until  the  words  come  from  you 
correctly  pronounced  without  the  least  bit  of 
effort  or  special  thought.     Only  then  can  you 
feel  sure  that  you  will  never  incorrectly  pro- 
nounce them. 


the 

theirs 

throw 

thine 

thrill 

this 

them 

threw 

thee 

thigh 

that 

there 

throwing 

thorn 

thread 

these 

either 

thrown 

thorough  threat 

those 

neither 

thrash 

mother 

thick 

wither 

other 

thresh 

father 

thin 

whither 

another 

thresher 

brother 

though 

whether 

bother 

thimble 

throng 

through 

weather 

scathing 

thunder 

throne 

thought 

their 

mouthing  thy 

thong 

think 

[265  1 

Pitfalls  in  English 


Point  3 
WH 
Americans  and  foreigners  alike  mispronounce 
words  with  wh.     They  say  wat  for  what,  wen  for 
when,  witch  for  which,  wile  for  while, 

DEVICE 

Put  the  lips  into  the  position  for  blowing  out  a 
candle.  Then  gently  blow  as  you  utter  these 
words  containing  wh.  If  you  will,  when  practic- 
ing, put  your  hand  in  front  of  the  mouth  you  will 
feel  the  breath.  You  will  then  know  that  you 
are  saying  the  wh  correctly. 

All  of  the  words  recorded  below  are  correct. 
The  point  to  be  careful  about  is  this:  When  you 
are  pronouncing  a  word  in  column  1  pronounce 
the  loh  with  care;  when  you  are  pronouncing  a 
word  in  column  2  omit  the  breathy  quality. 


1  2 

what  watt 

which  witch 

where  wear 

why  y 

whey  weigh  or  way 

whit  wit 

whist  wist 

whale  wale 

whoa  woe 


1 

whack 

white 

when 

wheel 

whig 

whether 

whirled 

whither 

whittle 


2 
wack 
wight 
wen 
weal 
wig 

weather 
world 
wither 
wittle 


[266] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Where  does  IMr.  Wissle,  the  whistler,  live? 
Have  you  heard  him  whistle? 

LETTERS 

The  subject  of  business  letters  and  formal  and 
informal  correspondence  is  interesting.  In  a 
small  volume  it  is  not  possible  to  deal  adequately 
with  it;  but  if  you  will  read  carefully  what  is 
said  here  on  the  subject,  perhaps  your  interest 
will  be  sufficiently  aroused  to  cause  you  to  seek 
further  information.  Go  to  your  public  library, 
ask  for  books  on  business  and  social  correspond- 
ence, take  notes,  and  put  into  practice  the  valu- 
able suggestions  which  you  find.  It  is  possible 
to  make  your  letters  so  interesting  and  attrac- 
tive that  your  friends  and  business  correspond- 
ents will  deem  it  a  pleasure  to  receive  them. 

MATERIAL  HINTS 

and 

HINTS  ON  MATERIAL 

Use  the  best  stationery  that  you  can  afford. 
Cheap  stationery  causes  the  point  of  the  pen  to 
stick,  and  spattering  of  ink  results;  it  sometimes 
absorbs  the  ink  almost  as  does  a  sheet  of  blotting 
paper,  causing  a  spreading  which  detracts  from 
the  appearance  of  the  sheet.  Good  stationery 
enables  the  pen  to  glide  over  the  surface  and  the 
penmanship  becomes  attractive. 

[267] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Use  white  stationery.  Highly  colored  station- 
ery is  not  considered  in  good  taste.  Cream  and 
gray  also  may  safely  be  used. 

Never  use  ruled  stationery.  If  you  cannot 
write  straight  on  unruled  paper,  use  a  black  lined 
sheet  under  your  writing  paper  to  assist  you. 
This,  however,  causes  your  penmanship  to  look 
stiff,  makes  it  appear  that  it  is  a  laborious  task 
for  you  to  TVTite,  and  somewhat  mars  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  reader.  The  best  thing  to  do — AND 
IT  IS  POSSIBLE— is  to  learn  to  write  straight. 

SUGGESTION 
If  your  writing  persists  in  going  up  hill,  you 
can  correct  the  difficulty  by  bringing  the  down 
strokes  of  each  letter  a  little  farther  down  than 
you  have  previously  thought  they  should  be 
brought.  If  you  have  always  thought  that  you 
were  writing  straight,  the  fact  that  the  writing 
was  uphill  after  you  had  finished  indicates  that 
you  did  not  come  down  far  enough  each  time. 

ILLUSTRATION 

[268] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

If  you  are  using  ordinary  note  paper  (that 
which  comes  folded  once,  making  four  pages) 
for  a  short  letter,  write  on  pages  one  and  three. 
If  you  are  going  to  use  the  four  pages,  the  best 
authorities  tell  you  to  write  on  page  one,  then 
two,  then  three,  then  four.  So  many  careful 
persons  use  page  one,  then  three,  then  two,  then 
four,  that  it  seems  permissible  to  follow  their 
example  if  one  so  desires. 

The  envelope  should  correspond  to  the  paper 
in  size,  color,  and  quality.  The  paper  should 
be  folded  neatly  and  correctly  to  fit  the  envelope. 
For  social  correspondence  it  is  not  correct  to  use 
the  stamped  envelope  furnished  by  the  United 
States  government,  even  though  the  paper 
might  correspond  to  it  in  every  particular. 
Envelopes  of  unusual  shapes  are  not  in  good 
taste  even  though  the  paper  can  be  folded  ex- 
actly to  fit. 

Black  ink  is  the  best  to  use.  Never  use  red, 
green,  or  purple  ink.  Do  not  write  with  a  lead- 
pencil.  Fountain  pens  are  inexpensive  and 
dependable;  there  is  no  excuse  for  a  letter  TVTit- 
ten  in  pencil.  Apologizing  for  the  use  of  pencil 
only  aggravates  the  offense  because  the  apology 
shows  that  you  are  conscious  of  a  violation  ©f  a 
rule  of  etiquette.  It  is  as  rude  as  reaching 
across  your  neighbor  at  table  and  saying,  "Ex- 
cuse me." 

[2691 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Try  many  kinds  of  pen  points.  Decide  upon 
the  one  with  which  you  have  the  best  results. 
Have  a  supply  on  hand  in  order  that  you  need 
never  wTite  with  a  poor  pen  point.  (Pen  points 
are  cheaper  when  bought  by  the  box.)  If  you 
use  a  fountain  pen  try  the  various  points  before 
purchasing. 

Never  take  the  liberty  of  scribbling  to  your 
family  and  other  intimates.  They  are  entitled 
to  your  best  efforts. 

Do  not  apologize  for  poor  penmanship.  "A 
poor  pen"  is  a  poor  excuse.  Write  your  best 
and  make  no  comment. 

There  should  be  no  erasures,  no  corrections, 
no  insertions,  and  no  postscripts.  Even  one 
erasure  makes  a  letter  untidy.  You  will  be 
amply  repaid  for  the  little  extra  trouble  of 
copying  a  letter  if  you  should  be  unfortunate 
enough  to  blot  or  make  a  mistake.  Get  the  rep- 
utation of  sending  out  w^ell-groomed  letters  and 
cherish  it. 

If  you  do  not  use  a  blotter,  your  letter  will 
look  just  a  little  nicer  than  if  you  do.  The  writ- 
ing will  stand  out  perkily  as  if  proud  to  repre- 
sent you. 

Underlining  spoils  the  appearance  of  your  let- 
ter. Do  not  underline.  Form  the  habit  of  so 
wording  your  letters  that  the  reader  will  under- 
stand the  remarks  and  place  the  emphasis  upon 

[270] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

the  proper  words.  Underlining  is  considered 
an  insult  to  the  intelligence  of  the  reader.  To 
underline  is  to  acknowledge  your  inability  to 
express  yourself  clearly. 

If  you  care  about  the  appearance  of  your  let- 
ter, you  must  see  that  it  occupies  the  center  of 
the  paper.  Observe  the  following  letters.  You 
will  see  that  the  right  hand  margins  and  the  left 
hand  margins  are  about  equal  in  width.  Of 
course  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the  right  hand  mar- 
gin even  (the  lines  finishing  one  under  the  other) , 
but  a  little  care  in  your  choice  of  words  will  give 
you  the  reward  you  seek.  There  may  be  a  little 
wider  space  under  the  signature  than  there  is  at 
the  top  above  the  heading.  The  point  to  avoid 
is  writing  a  very  short  letter  of  perhaps  two  or 
three  lines  near  the  top  of  the  paper  and  hav- 
ing several  inches  blank  at  the  bottom. 

Here  is  the  correct  way  to  lay  out  a  short 
letter  on  a  page  or  on  a  correspondence  card. 


[271] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

CENTER  YOUR  LETTER. 


42  Oak  Street 
Augusta,  Maine 
June  1,  1928 

Dear  Bess, 

Come    right 

along ! 

We've    plenty    of 

room  for  you  and  the  babies. 

Yours  lovingly, 

Katherine 

A  FORM  INDICATING  INTIMACY 


My  dear  Mollie: 


12  Oak  Avenue 
Lima,  Ohio 
June  6,  1928 


Affectionately  yours, 

Bertha  Rock 


[272] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


THIS  FORM  DOES  NOT  BESPEAK  INTIMACY. 

Hotel  Onondaga 
Syracuse,  New  York 
July  8,  1928 
My  dear  Mrs.  Pisa: 


Most  sincerely  yours, 

Harriet  Childs 
To  Mrs.  S.  Pisa 
78  Riverside  Drive 
New  York,  New  York 


[273] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


THIS  IS  A  CORRECT  FORMAL  LETTER,  THOUGH 
THE  FORM  IS  NOT  SO  POPULAR  AS  IT  ONCE  WAS. 


The  Buckingham 
123  Mariner  Street 
Buffalo,  New  York 
November  1,  1928 


Miss  Lena  Child 
Hotel  Biltmore 

New  York,  New  York 

Dear  Madam: 


Very  truly  yours, 

Ray  R.  Mark 


[274] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

BUSINESS  FORM  FROM  A  PRIVATE  INDIVIDUAL 
TO  A  FIRM 


65  Madison  Avenue, 
New  York,  N.  Y., 
January  4,  1928. 

Chicago  Bargain  House, 
Chicago,  111. 
Gentlemen : 


Very  truly  yours, 

John  Halliday. 


This  is  an  example  of  close  punctuation.  No- 
tice that  the  punctuation  is  consistent  through- 
out. Open  punctuation  would  be  correct.  The 
point  to  remember  is  to  be  consistent  through- 
out the  letter.  If  you  favor  close  punctuation, 
be  sure  to  use  the  marks  required.  If  you  favor 
open  punctuation,  omit  punctuation  marks 
where  it  is  permissible  to  omit  them. 

For  details  about  close  punctuation,  see 
pages  298,  299,  304. 

[275] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


City  of  New  York 
Department  of  Public  Instruction 

September  6,  1928 

Denton,  Cottier  &  Daniels 
Court  and  Pearl  Streets 
Buffalo,  N  Y 
Gentlemen : 


Very  truly  yours, 
John  Lee, 
Secretary 


This  sheet  is  a  letter  head.  Since  it  is  from 
the  department  of  education,  the  writer  is  par- 
ticularly careful  to  employ  the  latest  method 
of  arrangement  and  punctuation. 

He  is  using  open  punctuation.  There  is  no 
period  after  1928.  He  is  careful  to  write  the 
firm's  name  as  it  appears  on  the  firm's  letter- 

[276] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

head.     Notice  the  comma  between  the  city  and 
the  state. 

For    details    about    open    punctuation,    see 
pages  298,  299,  304,  305. 

BALANCED  FORM 
BUSINESS  ONLY 


Mr.  William  Bergman  6.5  Day's  Park 

699  Linwood  Avenue  Albany,  N  Y 

Buffalo,  NY  April  12,  1928 
My  dear  ^Ir.  Bergman: 


Very  truly  yours, 

Gustave  Neville 


Dear  Sir  would  have  been  correct  in  this  let- 
ter. The  wTiter  is  acquainted  with  ]Mr.  Berg- 
man; therefore  he  has  used  the  name  in  the 
salutation.  It  is  more  cordial  and  friendly  to 
mention  the  name.     In  writing  to  a  person  whom 

[277] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

you  do  not  know  it  is  better  to  say  Dear  Sir 
or  Dear  Madam  unless  you  are  very  sure  that 
to  mention  the  name  will  not  offend. 

FORM 

Form  as  applied  to  letter  writing  means  the 
orderly  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  letter. 

PARTS  OF  A  LETTER 

heading 

introduction 

salutation 

body 

complimentary  close 

signature 

Certain  arrangements  are  considered  correct; 
others  are  incorrect. 


[278] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


CORRECT  INFORMAL  NOTE 


a     12  Orchard  Place 

b    Boston,  Massachusetts 

c     December  31,  1928 

My  dear  Cecil: 

The  most  delightful  thing  has 
happened  to  us!  John's  parents  have 
bought  us  a  beautiful  bungalow  in  Nan- 
tucket, not  more  than  two  blocks  from 
your  home.  We  expect  to  move  very 
soon  and  have  already  begun  to  pack. 
Can  you  imagine  my  state  of  mind.^ 

When  you  come  to  town  Wed- 
nesday, will  you  please  drive  over  to  see 
us?  I  can  hardly  wait  to  tell  you  how  it 
all  happened.  Do  come  prepared  to  stay 
over  night.  This  will  be  your  last  \'isit 
to  our  dear  little  cottage  in  which  we 
have  so  many  times  enjoyed  your  de- 
lightful company. 

f     Affectionately  yours, 
g  Sophie 


[279] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


Notice  - 


Though  the  preceding  note  is  written  to  an 
intimate  friend,  it  is  written  carefully  and  with 
attention  to  details. 

that  the  address  of  the  writer  is  in- 
cluded (a  and  b). 

that  lines  a  and  b  are  not  finished  with 
a  comma. 

that  line  c  is  not  finished  with  a  period. 

the  comma  between  the  city  and  the 
state  (b). 

the  comma  between  the  day  of  the 
month  and  the  year  (c). 

that  there  are  no  abbreviations  (a,  b, 
and  c). 

that  there  is  no  st  after  31  (c) . 

Because  the  letter  is  written  to  an  intimate 
friend,  the  introduction  has  been  omitted.  Had 
the  introduction  been  included,  it  would  have 
been  like  either  of  the  following : 

Miss  Cecil  Erwine  Miss  Cecil  Erwine 

12  Quince  Street  12  Quince  Street 

Nantucket,  Massachusetts  Nantucket 

Massachusetts 

The  introduction  in  this  letter  would  have 
appeared  at  the  left  side  of  the  sheet,  a  little 
below  the  heading,  which  is,  as  you  see,  on  the 
right  side. 

[280] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

The  salutation  (d),  Dear  Cecily  might  have 
been  used  instead  of  My  dear  Cecil.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  the  use  of  My  makes  the  salutation 
less  intimate  in  a  friendly  letter  than  the  saluta- 
tion without  My;  but  many  persons  feel  that 
the  sense  of  proprietorship  expressed  by  the 
word  My  makes  the  salutation  in  a  letter  to  a 
friend  more  affectionate.  The  matter  resolves 
itself  into  one  of  personal  opinion,  and  in  the 
case  of  letters  to  friends  is  not  of  great  import- 
ance. 

BUT 

whether  you  believe  it  or  not,  whether  you  like 
it  or  not,  whether  you  follow  the  instruction  or 
not,  in  a  business  letter  and  in  a  formal  social 
letter,  remember: 

My  dear  IVIrs.  Brown 
is  more  formal  than 

Dear  Mrs.  Brown 

My  dear  Mr.  Gordon 
is  more  formal  than 

Dear  Mr.  Gordon 

My  dear  Miss  Gilman 
is  more  formal  than 

Dear  Miss  Gilman 

[281] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

My  dear  Dr.  Frye 
is  more  formal  than 

Dear  Dr.  Frye 

My  dear  Father  Walsh 
is  more  formal  than 

Dear  Father  Walsh 

My  dear  Rabbi  Kopald 
is  more  formal  than 

Dear  Rabbi  Kopald 

A  young  woman  having  occasion  to  write  to 
her  employer  ^Tites: 

My  dear  Mr.  Daniels 

A  woman  patient  writing  to  her  doctor  must 
be  careful  to  write: 

My  dear  Dr.  Wende 

A  person  writing  to  a  judge  writes: 

My  dear  Judge  Harris 
A  member  of  a  church  writes  to  his  minister: 

My  dear  Dr.  Boynton 
My  dear  Father  Ahern 
My  dear  Rabbi  Fink 

However  friendly  you  may  feel  with  these 
august  personages,  you  show  respect  to  their 
positions,  you  dignify  yourself,  and  you  show 

[282] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

that  you  are  aware  of  the  correct  way  to  address 
them  in  observing  this  little  detail.  If  you  adopt 
this  form  you  will  never  offend;  while  if  you  omit 
the  word  My  you  may  or  may  not  offend,  de- 
pending upon  the  indulgence  and  the  tempera- 
ment of  the  one  to  whom  you  are  writing.  In 
other  words,  My  is  always  correct,  while  at  times, 
to  omit  My  is  incorrect. 

A  woman  in  writing  to  a  man  should  be  par- 
ticularly careful  to  observe  this  rule. 

Notice  that  dear  is  begun  with  a  small  letter. 

Had  dear  been  the  first  word  of  the  salutation, 
it  would  have  been  written  with  a  capital.  Z)ear 
Cecil. 

Had  the  salutation  been  My  Dear  without  the 
word  Cecil,  Dear  would  have  been  written  with 
a  capital.  Omitting  the  name,  however,  is  not 
particularly  good  form. 

The  mark  after  the  salutation  in  social  letters 
may  be  a  colon  or  a  comma.  (In  business  letters 
use  a  colon.)  Do  not  use  a  dash  in  the  salu- 
tation. 

Wrong  Right 

Dear  Miriam: —  Dear  Miriam: 

Dear  Miriam, —  Dear  Miriam, 
Dear  Miriam — 

Now  we  come  to  the  body  of  the  letter. 
Notice  that  the  first  word  of  each  paragraph  is 

[283] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

indented  (e).  The  and  When  are  written  under 
the  word  Cecil.  All  the  other  first  words  of  each 
line  begin  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  edge  of 
the  paper. 

Notice  that  all  the  sentences  in  the  first 
paragraph  relate  to  the  happiness  over  the 
purchase  of  the  bungalow  and  all  in  the  second 
relate  to  the  plans  for  the  visit. 

Notice  that  the  space  between  the  two  para- 
graphs is  wider  than  the  space  between  the  lines. 

The  complimentary  close  is  used  without  a 
useless  expression  to  lead  up  to  it.  You  do  not 
see,  preceding  (f) : 

Hoping  that  we  shall  see  you  soon,  I  remain 
Trusting  that  you  will  come,  I  am 
Thanking  you  in  advance  for  the  pleasure 

which  your  visit  will  give  us 
Hoping  that  you  are  all  well 

Notice  that  a  comma  follows  the  compliment- 
ary close  (f). 

Other  complimentary  endings  which  might 
have  been  used  are: 

Lovingly  yours 
Devotedly  yours 
Your  sincere  friend 
Sincerely  yours 
Cordially  yours 

[284] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Depending  upon  the  closeness  of  the  friend- 
ship and  your  mood  when  writing,  you  will 
make  your  selection. 

Write  your  signature  plainly.  Use  initials 
sparingly.  Do  not  place  a  period  after  your 
signature.     (This  is  a  matter  of  opinion.) 

Poor  Good 

H.  Rodgers.  Helen  Rodgers 

Ed.  Fetes.  Edna  Fetes 

A.  J.  Wiggins.  Alta  J.  Wiggins 

M.  L.  Danahy.  M.  Louise  Danahy 

J.  F.  Huber.  John  F.  Huber 

CONTENTS 

It  is  not  incorrect  as  many  suppose  to  begin 
your  letter  or  any  paragraph  with  I.  If  you  are 
writing  to  a  friend,  he  is  undoubtedly  interested 
in  you  and  you  are  correct  if  you  begin  with  /. 
It  is  polite  to  be  interested  in  your  friend,  and 
beginning  a  letter  or  a  paragraph  with  you  is  one 
way  of  showing  that  interest.  With  the  last 
letter  received  lying  before  you,  you  show  your 
interest  in  your  correspondent  if  you  reply  to 
the  contents  which  relate  to  the  writer  before 
attacking  your  o^ti  personal  affairs.  In  this 
way  the  word  you  will  often  be  used  and  you 
will  not  be  considered  a  self-centered  cor- 
respondent. 

[285] 


Foot 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Do  not  begin  your  letter  with  excuses  about 
how  busy  you  have  been. 

Do  not  make  any  excuse  for  writing  your 
letter. 

ILLUSTRATION 

Having  a  few  moments  to  spare, 
While  waiting  for  the  soup  to  boil. 
As  I  have  no  work  just  now  that  must 

be  done. 
It's  a  rainy  day  and  as  I  have  to  stay 

in  the  house,  I  thought  I'd  write. 

Plunge  at  once  into  what  you  have  to  say. 
Write  what  you  think  will  interest  your  friend. 
As  you  are  about  to  write  what  you  cooked  for 
dinner  on  the  maid's  day  out,  or  how  you  made 
the  points  of  the  lace  curtains  meet  when  you 
hung  them  for  the  wedding,  or  how  you  pre- 
pare codfish,  ask  yourself,  "Should  I  be  inter- 
ested in  this  if  Mary  were  writing  it  to  me?" 
You  will  become  a  discriminating  censor.  How- 
ever, an  incident  which  would  not  interest  you 
may  sometimes  be  of  interest  to  the  person  to 
whom  you  are  writing;  in  such  a  case,  of  course, 
include  it  in  your  letter. 

Unless  you  are  writing  to  an  intimate  friend 
who,  you  are  sure,  is  deeply  interested  in  your 
health  and  who  would  want  to  know  the  truth 

[286] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

about  your  physical  condition,  do  not  give 
detailed  and  graphic  accounts  of  your  ailments. 
Tell  your  troubles  to  your  doctor.  He  is  paid 
to  listen  and  does  so  cheerfully.  Do  not  write 
all  your  domestic  or  business  difficulties  to  your 
friend  unless  your  friendship  is  of  the  kind  that 
permits  this  confidence.  Write  in  the  same 
spontaneous  manner  in  which  you  talk. 

Do  not  write  long  and  tedious  descriptions  of 
scenery  which  you  have  enjoyed  in  your  travels. 
Picturesque  folders  of  all  sections  of  the  world 
may  be  picked  up  free  of  charge  from  the  coun- 
ters of  the  local  travel  bureaus.  They  will 
probably  be  far  more  interesting  than  any  lit- 
erary efforts  of  your  creation.  Your  friend 
wishes  to  hear  about  you;  not  about  mountains. 
There  may  be  an  exception;  I  have  yet  to  meet 
him. 

Try  to  write  entertainingly  but  do  not  laugh 
on  paper  at  your  own  jokes  by  putting  in  "ha, 
ha"  after  a  humorous  remark.  Tax  your  in- 
genuity to  such  an  extent  that  your  humor  will 
be  observed  without  a  label. 

The  point  to  remember  is:  Give  every  letter 
thought.  Do  not  prolong  the  letter  for  the 
sake  of  filling  up  the  last  page. 

Do  not  give  a  reason  for  closing  your  letter. 
When  you  have  said  all  you  have  to  say,  stop. 


Pitfalls  in  English 

ILLUSTRATION 

Poor 

Well,  Mary,  I  guess  I'll  have  to  stop  now. 
Dinner  is  ready. 

There  is  no  more  news,  so  I'll  close. 

As  John  is  waiting  for  me  to  go  out  with  him, 
I'll  say  good-bye. 

BUSINESS  LETTERS 

It  would  seem  by  this  time,  after  so  much  has 
been  written  in  various  books  about  the  desir- 
ability of  the  warm  tone  of  a  business  letter, 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  find  anyone  who 
would  dictate  such  an  uninteresting  opening 
sentence  as 

"Yours  of  the  sixteenth  received  and  con- 
tents noted." 

The  one  to  whom  you  are  writing  knows  that 
his  letter  was  received  because  of  the  fact  that 
you  are  answering  it.  Why  say  that  the  con- 
tents were  noted?  Very  few  persons  receive 
mail  and  then  neglect  to  read  it. 

The  first  sentence  in  your  letter  is  the  most 
important  one.     It  introduces  you  to  the  one  to » 
whom  you  are  writing.     If  your  first  sentence  is  | 
weak  or  lacking  in  heartiness,  it  is  as  though  you 
approached  a  person  in  that  fashion. 

[288] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Your  first  sentence  should  contain  the  date 
of  the  letter  which  you  are  answering  and  in 
addition  some  pleasing  or  important  fact. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  OPENING  SENTENCES 

1.  We  wish  to  thank  you  for  your  frankness  in 

bringing  to  our  attention,  through  your 
note  of  April  4,  the  unsatisfactory  condi- 
tion   

2.  I  am  pleased  to  read  in  your  letter  of  April 

1 

3.  Your  frank  note  of  May  14  will  certainly  be 

the  means  of  correcting  gross  injustice. 

4.  From  your  letter  of  June  23,  it  is  evident 

that  you  will  be  better  pleased  if  we 

5.  Your  justifiable  complaint  as  stated  in  your 

letter  of  December  3  has  been  referred  to 
our  adjustment  department.  We  shall  do 
all  in  our  power  to 

Notice  that  every  opening  sentence  contains 
the  date  of  the  letter  to  which  reply  is  being 
made. 

Use  many  different  openings.  Do  not  get 
into  the  habit  of  writing  similar  opening  sen- 
tences in  all  your  letters. 

Do  not  lead  up  to  the  complimentary  close  by 
such  expressions  as 

[289] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Hoping  to  hear  from  you  soon 
Trusting  that  you  are  all  well 
lEiXpecting  to  hear  from  you  soon  again 
Wishing  you  a  merry  Christmas 
Sending  you  heartiest  congratulations 

\If  you  wish  to  express  these  sentiments, 

I  hope  to  hear  from  you  soon. 
I  trust  that  you  are  all  w^ell. 
Say :  \  I  shall  expect  to  hear  from  you  soon. 
I  wish  you  a  merry  Christmas. 
I  send  you  heartiest  congratulations. 

ADDITIONAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  CLOSING 
SENTENCES 

1.  We  shall  be  grateful  for  a  reply  before  Mon- 

day, May  2. 

2.  It  will  please  us  to  favor  you  again. 

3.  We  shall  expect  to  hear  from  you  definitely 

by  May  8. 

4.  We  feel  that  we  can  depend  upon  you  to  at- 

tend to  this  matter  promptly;  you  cer- 
tainly are  as  anxious  as  we  are  to  have  this 
a  closed  incident. 

5.  May  we  hear  from  you  soon? 

6.  Will  you  write  us  again  should  you  not  feel 

satisfied  with  this  explanation  .^^ 

7.  Will  you  write  us  again  should  this  explana- 

tion seem  inadequate? 
[290] 


J 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

8.  Are  you  convinced  now,  Mr.  Polk,  that  we 

have  dealt  fairly  with  you? 

9.  We  have  tried  hard  to  win  your  confidence 

and  we  wish,  if  possible,  to  keep  it. 

REMEMBER 

that  the  tone  of  the  last  sentence  depends  upon 
the  purpose  and  content  of  the  letter.  Think 
what  you  would  be  likely  to  say  in  your  parting 
sentence  just  before  '* Good-bye"  if  you  were 
talking  face  to  face.  Use  some  such  worth 
while  sentence  as  your  closing  remark  and  then 
finish  with  the  customary,  "Very  truly  yours," 
and  your  signature. 

ILLUSTRATION 

Weak 

Hoping  that  you  will  never  again  conclude  a 
letter  with  a  sentence  beginning  with  an  ing 
word,  I  am 

Very  truly  yours. 

Strong 

I  hope  that  you  will  never  again  conclude  a 
letter  with  a  sentence  beginning  with  an  ing 
word. 

Very  truly  yours, 
[291] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

The  following  signatures  show  how  persons 
in  various  conditions  of  life  sign  letters. 

1.  Very  sincerely  yours, 

(Miss)  Alsa  Partridge 

2.  Very  truly  yours, 

Myrtle  Baker 

3.  Very  cordially  yours, 

Polly  Lewis 

(Mrs.  Mack  Lewis) 

4.  Affectionately  yours, 

Lena  Lee 
(Mrs.  Julius  Lee) 

5.  Sincerely  yours, 

Sophie  L.  Blakeslee 

(Mrs.  Sophie  L.  Blakeslee) 

Very  sincerely  yours,  Sincerely  yours.  Very  cor- 
dially  yours.  Cordially  yours.  Very  truly  yours. 
Affectionately  yours,  and  many  other  expressions 
according  to  the  degree  of  acquaintance,  friend- 
ship, and  intimacy  may  be  used  for  the  compli- 
mentary close. 

EXPLANATION 

The  signature  of  Number  1  is  that  of  an  un- 
[292] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

married  woman.  She  is  writing  to  you,  a  person 
who  does  not  know  her.  She  has  signed  her 
name  in  full  to  show  you  how  she  expects  you  to 
write  it  upon  the  envelope  when  you  reply.  She 
has  indicated  that  she  is  single  and  by  inclosing 
the  word  Miss  in  parenthesis  she  has  shown 
that  she  knows  that  she  should  never  use  the 
word  Miss  with  her  signature.  She  is  putting 
it  there  for  your  benefit  only.  If  she  were  writ- 
ing to  a  person  who  knew  that  she  was  single 
she  would  not  put  the  Miss  in  the  letter,  even 
in  parenthesis. 

In  Number  2  Myrtle  Baker  is  writing  to  a  per- 
son who  does  not  know  her;  she  has  omitted  Miss 
in  parenthesis  because  she  does  not  like  the  use 
of  it.  She  knows  that  the  person  in  replying 
will  take  it  for  granted  that  she  is  single  since 
she  gave  no  evidence  of  being  married.  (If 
you  are  unmarried  choose  between  Numbers  1 
and  2.) 

In  Number  3  Mrs.  Mack  Lewis  has  signed  her 
Christian  name,  Polly  Lewis.  In  the  left  hand 
corner  she  has  shown  that  she  wishes  the  reply 
to  be  addressed  to  Mrs.  Mack  (her  husband's 
Christian  name)  Lewis. 

In  Number  4  a  widow  is  writing  the  letter. 
She  has  signed  her  name  and  at  the  left  she 
has  given  her  deceased  husband's  name  (Julius) 
so  that  you  may  know  how  to  address  her. 

[293] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

In  Number  5  a  widow  is  writing  the  letter. 
For  some  reason  she  does  not  care  to  be  known 
as  the  widow  of  George  Blakeslee.  Perhaps  her 
reason  is  merely  th,at  she  is  old-fashioned  and 
clings  to  the  old  idea  that  when  a  husband  dies 
the  widow  uses  her  Christian  name.  She  there- 
fore signs  herself  at  the  left,  Mrs.  Sophie  L. 
Blakeslee  in  parenthesis.  This  form  is  rapidly 
going  out.  Most  widows  prefer  to  retain  their 
deceased  husband's  Christian  name. 

A  married  woman  never  signs  her  name  Mrs. 

husband's  Christian  name]  and  surname  under 
or  I  the  complimentary 

her  own  Christian  name    J  close. 

If  she  uses  her  husband's  Christian  name  at  all, 
it  is  put  at  the  left  as  in  Numbers  3  and  4. 

To  intimate  friends,  she  omits  this,  and  signs 
her  own  Christian  name  with  or  without  her 
husband's  surname. 

Her  friends,  in  replying,  address  the  envelope 
to  Mrs. (husband's  full  name). 

A  man  in  signing  a  letter  omits  Mr. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  YOUR  BUSINESS 

LETTERS 

Address  a  single  or  a 

married  woman  Dear  Madam 

[294] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


(pronounced 
May-dahm) 


Address  a  man  whom 
you  have  not  met  (or 
even  if  you  have  met 
him  and  know  him 
slightly  in  a  business 
way)  Dear  Sir 

Address  a  firm  of  men   Gentlemen 

(Avoid:  Dear  Sirs) 
Address     a     firm     of 

women  Mesdames 

or 
Ladies 

If  you  object  to  the  words  Mesdames  and 
Ladies,  there  is  no  reason  why  you  should  not 
consult  your  own  feeling  in  the  matter.  If  your 
letter  is  otherwise  correct  and  in  good  form,  you 
might  take  the  liberty  of  originating  your  own 
salutation  and  use,  perhaps,  Women. 

Gentlemen  and  Madam  (if  one 

woman). 
Gentlemen  and  Mesdames   (if 

more  than  one  woman). 
Address  a  firm     Dear  Sir  and  Madam  (one  of 

each). 
Dear  Sir  and  Mesdames   (one 

man  and  some  women). 
Dear  Sir  and  Ladies  (one  man 

and  some  women). 

[295] 


of  both  sexes 


Pitfalls  in  English 

If  you  are  not  really  supposed  to  know  that 
the  firm  contains  women  and  you  do  not  like 
these  cumbersome  salutations,  write  Gentlemen. 

Unless  you  have  met  the  person  to  whom  you 
are  writing,  it  is  better  not  to  use  the  name  of  the 
person  in  the  salutation.  Dear  Sir  or  Dear 
Madam  is  preferable.  This  suggestion  need  not 
always  be  followed. 

Always  spell  the  name  of  your  correspondent 
exactly  as  he  or  she  spells  it.  This  applies  also 
to  firm  names.  If  the  firm  uses  <$•,  you  should 
use  it.  If  and  appears  in  the  firm  name,  you 
should  use  it.  If  the  firm  uses  Co.,  you  should 
use  it.  If  Company  is  used,  you  should  use  it. 
If  your  correspondent  has  an  initial,  use  it  in 
your  letter  to  him. 

Do  not  use  Friend  John  or  Dear  Friend  as 
salutations. 

Dear  John 

or 
My  dear  John 

In  writing  a  business  letter  never  use  both 
sides  of  the  paper. 

Do  not  use  the  word  to  in  addressing  the  en- 
velope or  in  writing  the  introduction  in  the 
letter. 

Wrong:  To  Miss  Maud  Irving. 
Right:     Miss  Maud  Irving. 

[296] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Do  not  use  such  signs  as 
#    for  number 
/     to  separate  the  parts  of  the  date 

to  show  the  omission  of  the  first  two 
figures  of  the  year 


st     for  the  first  da; 

y  of  the  month 

nd  for  the  second 

rd    for  the  third 

th    for  the  fourth 

Wrong 

Right 

#76  Park  Avenue 

76  Park  Avenue 

6/10/'28 

June  10,  1928 

6/10,  1928 

June  10,  1928 

June  10,  '28 

June  10,  1928 

June  1st,   1928 

June    1,  1928 

June  2nd,  1928 

June    2,  1928 

June  3rd,  1928 

June    3,  1928 

June  4th,  1928 

June    4,  1928 

*Do  not  use  Mr.,  Mrs., 

or  Miss  in  signing  your 

name  to  a  letter,  to  a  check,  or  to  any  other 

paper.  (There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.) 

Wrong 

Right 

Mr.  Oliver  Brown 

Oliver  Brown 

Mrs.  Oliver  Brown 

Kate  Brown 

Mrs.  Kate  Brown 

Kate  Brown 

Miss  Jane  Brown 

Jane  Brown 

or 
(Miss)  Jane  Brown 

[297 

■] 

Pitfalls  in  English 

*A  woman  never  omits  the  Mrs.  or  Miss  when 
registering  at  a  hotel  and  she  does  not  at  this 
time  use  parenthesis. 

Note:  A  man  registering  at  a  hotel  with  his 
wife  may  sign 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Oliver  Brown 

If  Mr.  Brown  does  not  like  to  use  the  abbre- 
viation Mr.  for  himself,  he  may  sign  for  himself 
and  his  wife: 

Oliver  Brown 
Mrs.  Oliver  Brown 

PUNCTUATION  IN  LETTERS 

You  will  find  some  hard  and  fast  rules  for 
punctuation  on  pages  320-353.  In  business 
letters  of  the  present  day  there  is  a  tendency  to 
ignore  many  of  the  old  rules. 

Modern  methods  employ  three  kinds  of 
punctuation:  close,  open,  and  conservative. 

Close  punctuation  is  the  kind  which  makes 
liberal  use  of  punctuation  marks,  according  to 
the  rules  w^hich  are  found  in  every  grammar.  It 
is  used  in  both  business  and  social  letters. 

Open  punctuation  is  the  kind  which  eliminates 
many  punctuation  marks.  It  aims  to  keep  the 
meaning  clear  and,  if  there  is  no  chance  for  a  mis- 

[298] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

understanding,  it  employs  as  few    punctuation 
marks  as  possible. 

Conservative  punctuation  aims  to  strike  a 
happy  medium. 

Open  punctuation  is  used  in  business  more 
than  in  social  letters. 

The  method  of  punctuation  is  in  such  a  transi- 
tional state  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  give 
you  definite  rules.  Authorities  are  still  dis- 
agreeing upon  what  should  be  eliminated.  How- 
ever, the  following  illustrations  will  help  you. 

Close  Punctuation  Open  Punctuation 

Mr.  John  G.  Small,  Mr  John  G  Small 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  San  Francisco,  Cal 

184  N.  Parade  Ave.,  184  N  Parade  Ave 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Jan.  6,  1928.  Jan  6,  1928 

The  city  should  always  be  separated  from  the 
state  by  a  comma.  The  figure  representing  the 
day  of  the  month  should  be  separated  from  the 
year  by  a  comma.  Probably  eventually  these 
two  marks  will  disappear  and  the  danger  of  a 
misunderstanding  be  obviated  by  leaving  a  well- 
defined  space  between  the  city  and  the  state  and 
between  the  day  of  the  month  and  the  year. 

If  you  are  not  accustomed  to  open  punctua- 

[299I 


Pitfalls  in  English 

tion,  you  will  perhaps  not  like  it  at  first;  but 
after  you  observe  that  the  letter  looks  much 
neater  without  so  much  unnecessary  encum- 
brance and  that  progressive  firms  are  using  this 
style,  you  will  become  a  convert  to  it.  Anyway 
it  is  in  the  line  of  progress  and  it  behooves  you, 
the  business  man  or  woman,  to  keep  abreast  and 
even  a  little  ahead  of  the  times. 

Even  in  the  body  of  the  letter  you  are  per- 
mitted to  omit  many  commas  if  the  meaning 
without  them  is  clear.  (Periods,  question 
marks,  exclamation  points,  semicolons,  colons, 
and  quotation  marks  are  not  to  be  omitted.) 

Illustration  : 

Correct:  a   If   it   is    extremely    cold    tomorrow, 

we  shall  not  ship  the  fruit. 
Correct:  b  If  it  is  extremely  cold  tomorrow  we 

shall  not  ship  the  fruit. 
Sentence  a  is  no  clearer  with  the  comma  than 
sentence  b  without  one.  In  such  a  case,  in  either 
business  or  social  letter,  you  may  choose.  You 
must  decide  which  style  of  punctuation  you  are 
going  to  use  and  adhere  to  that  style  through- 
out your  letter. 

BLOCKING 
Blocking  is  the  recently  adopted  method  of 
keeping  even  the  left  edges  of  certain  parts  of  a 
letter.     (See  letter  forms,  pages  272-279.) 

[300] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Illustration  : 

Blocked  Not  blocked 

243  Elm  Grove  243  Elm  Grove 
Chicago,  Illinois  Chicago,  Illinois 

243  Elm  Grove  243  Elm  Grove 

Chicago  Chicago 

Illinois  Illinois 

Typists  usually  employ  the  block  system  be- 
cause it  takes  less  time  to  bring  the  carriage  of  the 
type^Titer  over  to  a  point  under  the  first  word  of 
each  line  than  it  does  to  project  each  line  a  little 
farther  to  the  right. 

In  writing  with  a  pen  or  a  pencil,  the  labor  is 
no  greater  and  if  one  prefers  the  slant  effect  he 
may  use  it.  Most  persons  who  study  the  appear- 
ance of  a  letter  like  the  blocked  form  better. 

If  you  block  your  heading  and  introduction, 
block  the  address  on  the  envelope.  Consistency 
is  required. 

EXCEPTION 

Though  you  block  the  heading,  the  introduc- 
tion, and  the  address  on  the  envelope,  you  are 
not  obliged  to  block  your  paragraphs.  You 
may  do  so  if  you  wish.  Most  persons  think  that 
the  paragraphs  stand  out  more  prominently _if 
there  is  an  indentation  for  each. 

I  301  ] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

FAMOUS  LETTERS 

At  your  public  library  you  will  be  able  to  ob- 
tain letters  wTitten  by  famous  persons.  Read 
them  for  their  charm  of  composition.  The 
style  of  letters  -^T-itten  many  years  ago  will  be 
quaint  and  naive;  the  form  will  not  be  modern. 
For  modern  form  and  style  read  letters  of  famous 
men  and  women  of  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years. 
Let  your  librarian  help  you. 
ENVELOPE 

The  envelope  should  be  addressed  neatly  and 
plainly.  Write  your  return  address  distinctly 
in  the  upper  left  hand  corner  of  the  face  of  the 
envelope.  Place  the  stamp  squarely  in  the  upper 
right  hand  corner  leaving  a  narrow  margin  of 
the  envelope  above  and  at  the  right  side  of  the 
stamp.  Never  put  the  stamp  on  the  envelope  so 
that  the  head  is  upside  down. 

VARIOUS  WAYS  OF  ADDRESSING  AN  ENVELOPE 

1 


5  days 

878  Park  Avenue 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

Miss  Jane  Clowes 

333  Ashland  Avenue 

Buffalo 

N.  Y. 

[302] 

How  to  Avoid  Them 


Mrs.  Manuel  River, 
194  Ocean  View  Ave., 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


Miss  Bessie  Klauber 
North  Boston 
Erie  County 
New  York 


Miss  Sophie  Alexander 
272  Linwood  Avenue 
Buffalo,  N  Y 


Miss  Helen  Brownell 
245  Elmwood  Ave. 
Buffalo 
N.  Y. 


r 


Dr.  Ernest  C.  Hartwell 
Superintendent  of  Education 
Genesee  Building 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


Mr  W  H  Daniels 
Denton,  Cottier  &  Daniels 
Court  and  Pearl  Streets 
Buffalo,  N  Y 


S: 


[303] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

EXPLANATION  OF  PUNCTUATION  ON 
ENVELOPES 

Number  1 
CONSERVATIVE  PUNCTUATION 

Periods  follow  the  initials  A^  and  Y.  A  comma 
separates  the  city  from  the  state  when  the  city 
and  the  state  are  written  on  the  same  line  as  is 
the  case  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner  of  the 
envelope. 

Number  2 
CLOSE  PUNCTUATION 

Every  punctuation  mark  that  could  possibly 
be  used  is  found  here. 

A  period  follows  the  abbreviation  Mrs. 

A  comma  finishes  the  first  line. 
^  A  period  follows  the  abbreviation  Ave. 

A  comma  finishes  the  second  line. 

The  city  is  separated  from  the  state  by  a 
comma. 

A  period  follows  each  initial  of  the  state. 

The  period  after  Y  serves  as  a  finish  for  the 
line. 

Number  3 
OPEN  PUNCTUATION 

The  only  punctuation  mark  used  is  the  comma 
between  the  city  and  the  state. 

[304] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Number  4 
CONSERVATIVE  PUNCTUATION 

Here  a  few  marks  are  employed,  as  is  the  case 
in  Number  1. 

A  period  follows  the  abbreviation  for  "Doctor." 

To  be  consistent  a  period  must  follow  the 
middle  initial. 

A  comma  must  separate  the  city  from  the 
state. 

Periods  follow  the  initials  for  the  state. 

Number  5 
OPEN  PUNCTUATION 
The  town,  county,  and  state  are  on  separate 
lines;  therefore  no  punctuation  is  used. 

Number  6 
CONSERVATIVE  PUNCTUATION 

Here  the  indented  form  is  shown. 

NurMBER  7 
OPEN  PUNCTUATION 

A  comma  is  used  to  separate  city  from  state. 
Open  punctuation  here  may  startle  you.  The 
omission  of  periods  after  initials  is  permitted 
only  in  business  letters.  The  comma  appears 
after  Denton  because  the  firm's  letter  head 
is  engraved  in  that  way.  (See  page  296.) 

[305I 


Pitfalls  in  English 

There  is  a  reason  for  the  use  of  the  comma  in 
this  particular  place.  It  shows  that  Denton  is 
the  name  of  one  member  of  the  firm  and  that 
Cottier  is  the  name  of  the  other  member.  The 
&  introduces  the  third  member.  Without  the 
comma  in  the  firm  name,  Denton  Cottier  might 
be  the  Christian  name  and  the  surname  of  one 
man  (though  in  this  particular  case  it  would 
hardly  be  so  because  of  the  word  Daniels  which 
follows) . 

The  following  illustrations  show  how  the 
comma  (or  its  omission)  alters  the  meaning: 

Roger,  Brown  and  Company  two  men  and 

company 

Roger  Bro"s\Ti  and  Company  one  man  and 

company 

In  names  of  firms  it  is  not  customary  to  use 
the  comma  directly  preceding  and.     (Page  328) 

ETIQUETTE 

Do  not  write  social  letters  with  a  typewriter. 
Some  celebrities  who  have  a  large  correspondence 
are  compelled  to  permit  their  secretaries  to  use  a 
typewriter,  but  you  and  I  should  write  with 
pen  and  ink. 

Never  omit  your  address  from  the  letter.  I 
mean  by  this  that  your  address,  in  addition  to 

[306] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

appearing  on  the  envelope  (which  may  have  been 
thrown  away),  should  be  either  in  the  upper 
right  hand  corner  of  the  letter  or  the  lower  left 
hand  corner.  Even  if  your  friend  has  been 
TVTiting  to  you  for  years  he,  with  no  slight  degree 
of  annoyance,  may  have  had  to  refer  to  his 
address  book  every  time.  It  is  therefore  a  great 
convenience  to  the  recipient  if  he  has  your 
address  before  him. 

Reply  to  the  letters  of  your  friends  at  the 
proper  time:  no  sooner,  no  later.  If  your  friend 
writes  to  you  about  twice  a  year,  do  not  reply 
the  moment  his  letter  comes.  If  you  do,  you 
keep  him  in  your  debt  most  of  the  time.  This 
may  annoy  him. 

Reply  promptly  to  all  letters  which,  because 
of  the  nature  of  their  contents,  clearly  indicate 
that  the  writer  is  anxious  to  receive  a  reply. 

If  possible,  acknowledge  an  invitation,  formal 
or  informal,  the  day  you  receive  it. 

Remember  to  acknowledge  by  a  friendly  little 
note  the  unexpected  courtesies  which  are  ex- 
tended to  you  by  the  casual  acquaintance. 
Suppose  that  you  have  gone  to  a  concert.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  concert  you  find  that  it  is 
raining  and  you  are  obliged  to  stand  in  the 
lobby  of  the  hall  to  wait  for  a  taxicab.  An 
acquaintance  comes  to  your  assistance,  kindly 
taking  you  home  in  his  car.     Even  though  you 

[307] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

thank  him  at  the  door,  it  is  a  pleasing  attention 
to  write  him  a  note.  It  is  better  to  be  too  lib- 
eral than  to  be  considered  negligent  of  the  nice- 
ties of  courtesy. 

In  sending  out  Christmas  cards  or  any  other 
card  of  greeting  to  your  doctor,  lawyer,  min- 
ister, teacher,  or  to  anyone  else  who  does  not 
know  you  intimately  and  consequently  may  not 
recognize  your  penmanship,  always  include 
your  surname  and  your  address.  The  recipient 
may  know  many  Clara's,  Maud's,  and  John's 
but  he  will  have  no  idea  which  one  has  sent  the 
greeting  if  the  surname  is  omitted.  The  recip- 
ient is  uncomfortable  at  being  unable  to  acknow- 
ledge your  attention  and  you  are  deprived  of 
the  pleasure  of  a  note  of  thanks. 

Do  not  use  the  printed  or  engraved  "thank 
you"  cards.  The  attention  which  you  have 
received  deserves  a  return  courtesy  expressed 
through  the  personal  note. 

Do  not  thank  in  advance. 

ILLUSTRATION 

Poor 
Thanking  you  in  advance,  Helen,  for  the 
privilege    of    using    your    vacuum    cleaner 
while  you  are  to  be  away,  I  am, 

Yours  sincerely, 

Maud. 

[308] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

If  you  have  asked  the  favor  of  borrowing  the 
vacuum  cleaner,  do  not  take  it  for  granted  that 
Helen  will  lend  it  to  you.  x\bove  all  things  do 
not  let  Helen  know  that  you  have  taken  it  for 
granted  by  thanking  in  advance.  If  you 
thought  it  worth  while  to  ask  for  the  cleaner, 
you  should  think  it  more  than  worth  while  to 
thank  Helen  after  she  grants  the  request. 

FORMAL  CORRESPONDENCE 

Are  you  invited  to  formal  functions  often 
enough  to  remember  the  correct  method  of 
acknowledging  your  invitation,  or  do  you  be- 
come *' panicky"  whenever  you  find  one  of  these 
delightful  invitations  among  your  mail?  '^WTiat 
shall  I  do?"  "How  shall  I  answer  this  invita- 
tion to  dinner?"  "Dear  me,  I'd  almost  rather 
not  be  invited!" 

Maybe  you  are  in  even  a  worse  predicament 
than  that  of  not  knowing  just  what  form  to  use. 
Perhaps  you  calmly  sit  down  and  write  a  friendly 
little  note  telling  that  the  baby  is  ill  and  that 
you  cannot  attend  the  dinner.  If  you  do  you 
are  committing  a  serious  social  error. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  include  the  etiquette  of 
formal  correspondence  in  this  book.  I  merely 
want  you  to  know  that  there  is  a  correct  way  to 
reply  to  invitations  which  begin  with  the  name 

[309] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

of  the  person  or  persons  issuing  the  invitation 
instead  of  beginning  with  I  or  we. 

If  you  receive  an  invitation  which  begins 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hugo  Whiteman 
request  the  pleasure 

you  commit  a  serious  social  error  if  you  write  in 
reply 

My  dear  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Whitevian: 
I  shall  be  delighted  to  accept 

Just  as  the  invitation  began  with  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Whiteman,  so  must  the  reply  begin  with  your 
own  name  and  be  written  in  the  same  form  as  the 
invitation 

One  invitation,  one  note  of  acceptance,  and 
one  note  of  regrets  are  here  presented.  They 
will  suffice  to  show  you  how  to  acknowledge  this 
particular  form  of  invitation.  They  will  be  a 
constant  reminder  that  whenever  you  receive 
such  an  invitation,  you  must  be  careful  to  follow 
the  rules  which  polite  usage  dictates. 

Your  invitation  may  be  different  from  the  one 
in  this  book.  It  may  require  a  slightly  differ- 
ent reply  from  these  illustrations.  Indeed,  it 
may  require  no  reply.  \Mien  you  receive  any 
formal  invitation  be  sure  to  consult  a  reliable 
authority  on  whether  or  not  to  reply.  Fascinat- 
ing books  on  the  subject  are  in  every  public 

[310] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

library.  If  you  do  not  wish  to  carry  the  book 
home,  copy  the  form  which  you  need.  Let  the 
librarian  help  you  if  you  are  uncertain.  She 
will  be  glad  to  come  to  your  rescue. 

FORMAL  INVITATION 

Miss  Joan  Wiggins 

requests  the  pleasure  of 

Miss  Lela  McDonald's 

company  at  dinner 

on  Wednesday  the  fourth  of  November 

at  seven  o'clock 

at  Five  Hundred  Eight  Franklin  Street 

ACCEPTANCE 

Miss  Lela  McDonald 

accepts  with  pleasure 

Miss  Joan  Wiggins's 

kind  invitation  to  dinner 

on  Wednesday  the  fourth  of  November 

at  seven  o'clock 

REGRETS 

Miss  Lela  McDonald 

regrets  that  a  previous  engagement 

prevents  her  accepting 

Miss  Wiggins's 

kind  invitation  to  dinner 

on  Wednesday  the  fourth  of  November 

[311] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

The  forms  for  acceptance  and  regrets  are  the 
same  as  those  for  the  invitation.  The  following 
are  incorrect  because  the  words  are  not  prop- 
erly laid  out.  (When  the  words  are  correctly 
placed,  the  form  is  correct.) 

Incorrect 

Miss  Lela  McDonald  accepts  with 
pleasure  Miss  Joan  Wiggins's  kind 
invitation  to  dinner  on  Wednesday  the 
fourth  of  November  at  seven  o'clock. 

Incorrect 

Miss  Lela  McDonald  regrets  that  a 
previous  engagement  prevents  her  ac- 
cepting Miss  Joan  Wiggins's  kind 
invitation  to  dinner  on  Wednesday  the 
fourth  of  November  at  seven  o'clock. 

In  writing  with  pen  and  ink  such  an  invita- 
tion as  the  one  on  page  311,  the  same  arrangement 
that  is  used  for  engraved  forms  must  be  observed. 

Incorrect 

o'd<rv}6  at  ^<Hi\^AM^^  i^^Ajufl 

[3^21 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Correct 


It  is  not  necessary  to  give  any  reason  for 
inability  to  attend  a  function.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances give  as  an  excuse  business,  illness, 
death  in  the  family,  or  any  other  personal  sorrow 
or  difficulty.  If  you  do  not  wish  to  state  that  a 
previous  engagement  prevents  your  being  pres- 
ent, say: 

Miss  Lela  McDonald 

regrets  that  she  will  be 

unable  to  accept 

Miss  Wiggins' s 

kind  invitation  to  dinner 

on  Wednesday  the  fourth  of  November 

[313I 


Pitfalls  in  English 

AN  EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

(The  terms  which  are  now  to  be  explained  are 
in  no  way  technical.  They  have  the  same 
meaning  in  this  course  that  they  have  in  ordi- 
nary conversation.  It  is  necessary  to  under- 
stand them  before  taking  up  capitalization  and 
punctuation.) 

A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  expressing  a 
coviplete  thought. 

The  following  groups  of  words  from  Barren 
Ground  by  Ellen  Glasgow  are  not  sentences 
because  they  are  not  complete  thoughts.  Ellen 
Glasgow  adopts  this  style  as  do  many  other 
modern  writers.  If  you  wish  to  write  correctly 
you  w411  avoid  it  in  your  business  and  social 
letters.  When  you  become  a  recognized  author 
you  may  take  liberties  and  introduce  any  style 
you  like. 

NOT  SENTENCES 

"Old  vibrations  that  were  incomplete.  Un- 
conscious impulses  which  had  never  quivered 
into  being.  All  the  things  that  she  might  have 
known  and  had  never  known  in  her  life." 

The  following  from  Barren  Ground  by  Ellen 
Glasgow  are  sentences  because  they  express 
complete  thoughts. 

[314] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

"  Out  of  this  whirling  chaos  in  her  mind  Jason's 
face  emerged  like  the  face  of  a  marionette.  Then 
dissolving  as  quickly  as  it  had  formed,  it  reap- 
peared as  the  face  of  Nathan,  and  vanished 
again  to  assume  the  features  of  Richard  Burch, 
of  Bob  Ellgood,  and  of  every  man  she  had  ever 
known  closely  or  remotely  in  her  life.  They 
meant  nothing."     (3  sentences) 

There  are  four  kinds  of  sentences: 

a.  A  statement  is  a  sentence  that  tells  a  fact. 

We  get  wool  from  sheep. 

b.  A  question  is  a  sentence  that  asks  something. 

Do  we  get  wool  from  sheep  .^ 

c.  A    command    is    a    sentence    that    makes    a 

request. 
Open  the  door. 

d.  An  exclamation  is  a  word,  a  group  of  words, 

a   statement,   a   question,   or  a   command 
expressed  with  strong  feeling. 

Help !     (a  word  expressed  with  strong  feeling) 

The  idea!  (a  group  of  words  expressed  with 
strong  feeling) 

How  exquisitely  he  paints!  (a  statement 
expressed  with  strong  feeling) 

You  have  never  been  to  Europe!  (a  ques- 
tion expressed  with  strong  feeling) 

Open  the  window!  (a  command  expressed 
with  strong  feeling) 

[315] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

MORE  ABOUT  EXCLAMATIONS 

Simple  statement:  a  He  paints  exquisitely. 
Strong  statement:  b  He  paints  exquisitely! 
Strong  statement:  c  How  exquisitely  he  paints! 

Simple  question:     d  Have  you   never   been   to 

Europe? 
Strong  question:      e  Have   you  never  been  to 

Europe! 
Strong  question:     /  You   have   never   been  to 

Europe ! 

Simple  command:   g  Open  the  window. 
Simple  command:   h  Please  open  the  window. 
Strong  command:   i   Open  the  window! 

Sentence  a  is  a  statement.  The  reader  reads 
it,  or  the  speaker  utters  it,  calmly. 

Sentence  b  is  uttered  with  strong  feeling. 
Sentence  c  is  uttered  with  even  stronger  feeling. 

Sentence  (i  is  a  plain,  simple  question. 

Sentence  e  is  a  question  uttered  with  strong 
feeling  and  an  expression  of  surprise. 

Sentence  /  is  a  question  uttered  in  the  same 
manner  as  e. 

Sentence  g  is  a  simple  command. 
Sentence   h   is   a   polite    command,    called   a 
request. 

[316] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Sentence  i  is  a  strong  command,  expressed  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  show  that  there  is  need  to 
hurry.     Perhaps  someone  is  about  to  faint 

Sentences  b,  c,  e,  /,  i  are  exclamations. 

CAPITALIZATION 
BEGIN  WITH  A  CAPITAL  LETTER 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence. 

Electricity  is  used  for  heating  and  light- 
ing,    (statement) 

Have  you  ever  been  to  Europe?    (question) 

Take  time  to  do  things  thoroughly,  (com- 
mand) 

What  a  delightful  trip  you  must  have 
had !     (exclamation) 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

In  careless  patches  through  the  wood 
The  clumps  of  yellow  primrose  stood, 
And  sheets  of  white  anemones, 
Like  driven  snow  against  the  trees, 
Had  covered  up  the  violet, 
But  left  the  blue-bell  bluer  yet. 

A.  A.  Milne. 

3.  The  first  word  of  every  exact  quotation. 

The  nurse  called  softly,  ''Let  us  have  some 

air.'* 
Refer  to  Caution^  page  346. 

[317] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

4.  Names   of  individual   persons,   places,   and 

things. 

girl — Mary  city — Washington 

newspaper —  Times 

5.  Days  of  the  week  and  months  of  the  year. 

(Seasons  are  not  capitalized.) 
Sunday,  Monday,  Tuesday 
January,  February,  March 
spring,  summer,  autumn  or  fall,  winter 

6.  Names  of  the  Deity. 

God,  Father,  Deity,  Christ,  Jesus,  Naza- 
rene,  Eternal  One,  His  (when  referring  to 
Deity),  Thou  (when  writing  the  word 
used  in  addressing  Deity),  Almighty, 
Lord 

7.  Important  words  in  titles  of  books  or  other 

compositions. 
The    Amenities    of    Book- Collecting,     The 
Middle   of   the   Road,   Sights  from  my 
Window 

8.  Titles   when   used  in  reference   to   definite 

persons. 

Did  you  see  the  picture  of  President  John 
D.  Larkin  which  the  club  has  purchased 
for  the  rest  room.f* 

[318] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

9.  North,  East,  South,  West  when  referring  to  a 
section  of  country,  but  not  when  refer- 
ring to  direction. 

I  enjoy  the  South  in  winter. 
New  York  is  south  of  Albany. 

10.  The  names  of  things  formally  personified. 

The  Spoon  said  to  the  Dish,  '* .  " 

11.  I  and  0  when  used  as  words. 

The  man  said  that  I  was  a  capable  worker. 

I'm  worried;  0,  Harry,  do  help  me! 

For  diflPerence  between  0  and  oh  see  page 

228. 

12.  Words  derived  from  proper  names. 

African  derived  from  Africa 

American  derived  from  America 

Bostonian  derived  from  Boston 

13.  Names  of  political  parties,  religious  denomi- 

nations,    epochs     of    time,     particular 
events,  particular  documents. 

Republican,  Democrat,  Socialist 
Baptist,  Protestant,  Christian,  Jew,  Catho- 
lic, Presbyterian 
Middle  Ages,  the  Renaissance 
Thanksgiving  Day,  Christmas,  New  Year 
Magna   Charta,   Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, Constitution  of  the  United  States 

[319] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Note:  K  you  are  interested  to  find  further 
uses  for  the  capital  or  if  you  are  in  doubt  as  to 
the  capitalization  of  other  words  in  your  business 
or  social  correspondence,  consult  a  grammar  or 
the  dictionary,  or  both. 

PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation  is  not  the  difficult  feature  of  cor- 
rect writing  which  many  persons  consider  it  to 
be.  It  is  the  simple  act  of  separating  sections  of 
composition  so  that  the  meaning  may  be  clear 
to  the  reader. 

The  most  commonly  used  punctuation  marks 
are: 


period 

question  mark 
exclamation  point 

• 

? 

f 

• 

comma 

9 

semicolon 

• 

colon 

• 

apostrophe 
quotation  marks 
hyphen 
dash 

» 

parenthesis 
dots 

(     ) 

Those   who   understand  little   of  the   correct 
method  of  punctuation  insert  commas  and  semi' 

[320] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

colons,  as  well  as  some  of  the  other  marks, 
here,  there,  and  everywhere,  without  regard  to 
reason  or  judgment.  This  sort  of  punctuation, 
almost  as  much  as  incorrect  spelling,  indicates  a 
lack  of  education.  There  was  a  time  when  punc- 
tuation marks  were  used  more  liberally  than  at 
the  present.  The  tendency  now  is  to  use  as  few 
as  possible. 

No  two  authorities  agree  on  the  method  of 
employing  punctuation  marks.  All  agree  that 
it  is  better  to  employ  few  than  many.  The  one 
thing  about  which  to  be  sure  is  clearness  of  mean- 
ing. Before  giving  you  models  and  devices  to 
study  I  shall  present  a  few  sentences  in  which 
the  meaning,  for  the  moment,  is  not  clear,  be- 
cause of  incorrect  punctuation. 

Not  Clear:  a  I  shall  go  for  John  wishes  me  to 
assist  him  with  his  books. 

Clear:  b  I  shall  go,  for  John  wishes  me  to 

assist  him  with  his  books. 

Sentence  a  begins  as  though  I  intend  to  go 
for  John  (call  for  John). 

In  sentence  6,  the  comma  after  go  shows  that 
for  John  belongs  to  the  second  part  of  the  sen- 
tence; and  that  I  shall  go  because  John  wishes 
me  to  assist  him  with  his  books,  perhaps  at  his 
office. 

[  321  ] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Not  Clear:  c  When  I  was  ready  to  read  the 
books  could  not  be  found. 

Clear:  d  When  I  was  ready  to  read,  the 

books  could  not  be  found. 

Sentence  c  begins  as  if  to  say,  "When  I  was 
ready  to  read  the  books/* 

In  sentence  d,  the  comma  shows  that  the  ex- 
pression the  boohs  belongs  to  the  second  part — 
the  books  could  not  be  found. 

Not  Clear:  e  They  ought  to  have  a  maid  for 

their  mother  works  entirely  too 

hard. 
Clear:  /  They  ought  to  have  a  maid,  for 

their  mother  works  entirely  too 

hard. 

It  is  not :  They  ought  to  have  a  maid  for  their 

mother. 
It  is:  They   ought   to   have   a    maid   for 

(meaning    because)    their  mother 

works  too  hard. 
The  maid  serves  the  whole  family; 

she  is  not  for  the  mother  alone. 

Do  not  think  that  this  little  temporary  mis- 
understanding is  unimportant.  It  breaks  into 
a  smooth  reading  and  causes  the  reader  to  begin 
over  again.     If  such  an  error  occurs  in  a  letter  of 

[  322  1 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

application,  a  business  letter,  or  a  piece  of  fic- 
tion, it  is  annoying  to  the  reader  and  militates 
against  the  author.  Sometimes  serious  misun- 
derstandings occur  from  incorrect  punctuation; 
lawsuits,  entailing  great  expense,  often  result. 

Clear:  g  I  am  introducing  to  you  by  a  sep- 

arate letter  my  cousin,  Kate. 

Clear:  h  I  am  introducing  to  you  by  a  sep- 

arate letter  my  Cousin  Kate. 

In  sentence  g  the  comma  indicates  that  I  am 
writing  to  a  person  named  Kate. 

In  sentence  h  the  omission  of  the  comma  shows 
that  the  person  being  introduced  is  Cousin  Kate. 

Both  g  and  h  are  clear;  the  meanings  are 
different. 


USES  OF  PERIOD,  QUESTION  MARK, 
EXCLAMATION  POINT 

Every  sentence  must  close  with  one  of  these 
three  marks: 

period,     question  mark,     exclamation  point. 
?  ! 

Master  thoroughly   the   uses   of  these  three 
marks  before  attacking  the  next. 
Rule  1     The  period  is  used  after 

[323] 


Pitfalls  in  English 


a  statement 

a  command 
an  abbreviation 

.  initials 


Exquisite  tapestries  are  for 

sale. 
Please  open  the  door, 
amt.         (abbreviation      for 

amount) 
G.  W.   (initials  for  George 

Washington) 


exclamations  * 


Rule  2     The  question  mark  is  used  after 

a  question  Is   New   York   larger   than 

Chicago  .f^ 

Rule  3     The  exclamation  point  is  used  after 

fFire! 

How  strange! 
Come  here! 

What    a    beautiful    view    you 
have! 
You  can't  read  English! 

Do  not  introduce  question  marks  and  exclama- 
tion points  at  unusual  places  with  the  idea  of 
expressing  your  particular  mood  when  writing. 

Poor:  I  played  (?)  at  my  teacher's  musicale  last 
evening.  I  received  little  applause !  That 
tells  the  tale.  Mother  says  she  thinks  that 
I  am  not  doing  well  and  now  I  must  prac- 
tice two  hours  a  day ! 

[  324  ] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

The  question  mark  is  supposed  to  convey  the 
idea  that  perhaps  the  reader  would  not  call  it 
'* playing."  Do  not  indulge  in  this  cheap  style  of 
punctuation  which  arouses  criticism  and  amuse- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  educated  reader.  Unless 
you  know  how  to  apply  a  mark,  do  not  use  it. 

THE  COMMA 


This  little  insignificant  mark  ( ,  )  has  more 
uses  than  has  any  other  of  the  punctuation  marks 
mentioned  on  page  320.  Because  of  this  you 
are  urged  to  master  the  marks  which  have 
already  been  explained  and  which  come  only  at 
the  end  of  the  sentence.  Then  spend  much  time 
on  the  comma  before  studying  the  next  mark. 

Rule  1  Separate  a  term  of  address  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  or 
commas. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

a   George,   I   should  have  paid   the   debt  long 

ago.     (addressing  George) 
a   I  should  have  paid  the  debt  long  ago,  George. 

(addressing  George) 
a   Fair  daffodils,  we  weep  to  see 

You  haste  away    so    soon,     (addressing   fair 

daffodils) 

[325] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

a   Sleep,  how  have  I  frightened  thee,     (address- 
ing sleep) 
h    I  know,  George,  that  I  should  have  paid  the 

debt  long  ago.     (addressing  George) 
b    Now,  my  dear,  you  must  go  to  bed.     (address- 
ing my  dear) 
h    "Listen,  my  children,  and  you  shall  hear 

Of    the    midnight    ride    of    Paul    Revere." 
(addressing  my  children) 
Sentences  marked  a  require  one  comma. 
Sentences  marked  b  require  two  commas. 

Do  you  see  why.^^ 

Rule  2  When  two  complete  short  sentences 
are  connected  by  and,  but,  or  or, 
a  comma  usually  precedes  and,  but, 
or  or. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  . 

a    The  wind  howled  the  ivhole  night  long,  and  the 

snoiD  heaped  itself  along  the  road.  , 

b    The  girl  sings,  but  she  cannot  dance.  \ 

c    I  can  go,  or  I  can  remain  here  while  you  go. 

Observe  that  each  italicized  section  is  a  com- 
plete thought  or  sentence. 

If  the  parts  of  the  sentence  preceding  and  fol- 
lowing and,  but,  or  are  short  and  simple,  the 
comma  may  be  omitted,  provided  that  there  is 

[326] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

no  temporary  or  permanent  ambiguity  of 
meaning. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Ambiguous:  d  I  shall  call  for  Mary  and  John  will 

call  for  Tom. 
Clear:  e  I  shall  call  for  ^Mary,  and  John 

will  call  for  Tom. 

In  rapidly  reading  sentence  c?,  you  would  say, 

"I  shall  call  for  Mary  and  John  "  and  at 

that  point  you  would  discover  that  the  writer 
intended  to  call  only  for  Mary.  Another  person 
will  call  for  Tom.  The  comma  in  sentence  e 
prevents  that  temporary  misunderstanding. 

Ambiguous:  f  I  shall  go  to  church  and  the  meet- 
ing I  shall  attend  later. 

Clear:  g  I  shall  go  to  church,  and  the  meet- 

ing I  shall  attend  later. 

In  rapidly  reading  sentence  /,  you  would  say, 

*'I  shall  go  to  church  and  the  meeting "  and 

at  that  point  you  would  discover  that  the  writer 
really  meant  that  he  could  not  go  to  the  meeting 
at  that  time  but  that  he  would  go  later.  The 
comma  in  sentence  g  prevents  that  temporary 
misunderstanding  and  renders  a  smooth  first 
reading. 

[327] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Clear:  h  I  shall   go  to  school,   but  John 

will  remain  at  home. 

Clear:  i   I  shall  go  to  school  but  John  will 

remain  at  home. 

In  h  there  is  no  danger  of  a  misunderstanding; 
therefore,  the  comma  may  or  may  not  be  used. 
(Refer  to  sentence  i.) 

Rule  3  In  a  list  of  more  than  two  articles, 
more  than  two  describing  words,  or 
more  than  two  similarly  arranged 
groups  of  words,  each  article,  de- 
scribing word,  or  group  of  words 
excepting  the  last  is  followed  by  a 
comma,  whether  the  word  and  or  or 
appears  or  does  not  appear  in  the 
series. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

a  Please  send  me   some  ham,  egg,  and  lettuce 

sandwiches. 
b  She    spoke    entertainingly,    vivaciously,    and 

with  fine  enunciation. 
c  I  walk  to  school,  to  church,  and  to  business  for 

exercise. 
d  That  the  earth  is  round,  that  heat  expands, 

and  that  water  seeks  its  level  are  three  facts 

which  our  teacher  taught  this  morning. 

[328] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

e  The  teacher  uses  red,  blue,  or  green  pencils 
for  marking  papers. 

It  was  once  the  fashion  to  omit  the  comma 
before  and  and  or  in  sentences  like  a,  6,  c,  c?,  and 
e.  No  real  harm  would  be  done  in  omitting  the 
last  comma  in  sentences  like  6,  c,  d,  and  e.  But 
if  the  last  comma  in  sentence  a  were  omitted, 
the  person  writing  the  order  would  be  making 
a  request  for  only  two  kinds  of  sandwiches :  ham 
for  one  kind;  and  egg  with  lettuce  for  the  other. 
What  he  really  wants  is  an  assortment  of  three 
kinds  and  his  punctuation  without  the  second 
comma  would  mislead  the  caterer. 

Here  is  another  illustration  to  show  that  the 
comma  is  necessary  before  and  to  avoid  mis- 
understanding. 

Suppose  that  I,  jMr.  Randall's  secretary,  wish 
to  announce  by  means  of  a  note  placed  upon 
Mr.  Randall's  desk  that  the  three  men  for  whom 
he  has  been  waiting  have  arrived. 

I  WRITE: 

Mr.  Randall,  Mr.  Baker  and  Mr.  Hughes  are 
in  the  reception  room  waiting  to  see  you. 

My  employer  does  not  request  to  have  the 
men  sent  to  him.  I  finally  return  to  his  private 
office  to  see  what  is  the  reason  for  the  delay. 

[329] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Mr.  Randall  says  that  he  is  waiting  for  the  third 
man,  his  brother,  a  second  Mr.  Randall. 

I  call  his  attention  to  the  fact  that  I  have 
written  the  three  names  upon  his  paper.  He 
replies  that  I  punctuated  incorrectly  so  that 
he  interpreted  the  first  comma  to  mean  that  I 
was  addressing  him  and  that  the  two  names 
connected  by  and  without  the  comma  indicated 
that  two  men  were  in  the  reception  room;  he 
was  waiting  for  the  third  to  arrive.  The  sen- 
tence should  have  been  punctuated  as  follows: 

Mr.  Randall,  Mr.  Baker,  and  Mr.  Hughes 
are  in  the  reception  room  waiting  to  see  you. 

Do  not  think  that  a  comma  always  precedes 
and  and  or. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

/  She  plays  piano  and  violin. 

g  She  plays  either  piano  or  violin. 

h  We  went  to  the  gymnasium  and  played  basket- 
ball. 

i  Mr.  Randall,  Mr.  Baker  and  Mr.  Hughes  are 
waiting  for  an  interview. 

Sentences  /  and  g  refer  to  two  articles  con- 
nected by  and  and  or.  No  comma  is  used  when 
only  two  articles  are  named. 

In  sentence  h  the  second  member,  the  part 
after  andy  is  not  a  complete  sentence;  therefore, 

[330] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

no  comma  is  required  before   and.     (Refer  to 
Rule  2  under  comma.) 

In  sentence  i  the  comma  after  Mr.  Randall 
indicates  that  the  note  is  addressed  to  IVIr. 
Randall.  He  is  being  informed  that  only  two 
men  are  waiting  to  see  him.  No  comma  is  used 
for  only  two  names  connected  by  and  or  or. 

It  is  clear  that  a  much  better  way  of  ^Titing 
such  a  note  is  this: 
jMt.  Randall: 

]Mr.  Baker  and  Mr.  Hughes  are  waiting  for 
an  interview. 

Rule  4     Explanatory  words  are  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

a  Vse,  the  people  of  the   United  States,  have 

made  these  laws. 
b  George  Washington,  the  first  president,  was 

born  in  Virginia. 
c  The  shallowest  of  the  Great  Lakes,  Lake  Erie, 

is  treacherous. 
d  I,  John  Halifax,  do  hereby  declare  that  the 

statement  is  true. 

Rule  5     Parenthetical   expressions   may   be   set 
off  by  commas. 

[331] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

ILLUSTRATION 

a  John,  the  boy  to  whom  I  gave  the  money,  ^ 
did  not  return  with  the  package.  " 

The  parenthetical  expression  is  the  hoy  to 
whom  I  gave  the  money.  A  comma  precedes  and 
follows  the  expression. 

Rules  4  and  5  are  similar. 

Rule  6  A  comma  separates  the  answers,  yes 
and  no,  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

a  Yes,  the  water  is  rough  at  present. 
h  No,  do  not  bring  your  bathing  suit. 

Rule  7  When  a  sentence  begins  with  if  or  when, 
the  first  section  is  usually  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a 
comma. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  ^ 

a  If  you  pour  hot  water  into  a  cold  glass,  the 

glass  will  crack. 
h  When  the  clock  strikes  six,  come  in  to  tea. 

Rule  8  A  comma  separates  the  exact  words  of 
a  speaker  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 
a  He  calmly  replied,  '*That  is  all  I  have  to  say." 

[332] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

b  "Yes,'*   he   said,    "the   doctor   will   soon   be 

there." 
c  "The  patient  is  impro'vang,"  said  the  nurse. 

Important:  It  is  necessary  to  be  particular 
about  the  location  of  the  comma  when  using 
quotation  marks.  Study  sentences  a,  b,  c  under 
Rule  8.  You  will  see  that  the  comma  always 
precedes  the  quotation  marks. 

Wrong:  "Yes",  he  said,   "the  doctor  will  soon 

be  there." 
Right:     "Yes,"  he  said,  "the  doctor  will  soon  be 

there." 

Wrong:  "The  patient  is  improving",  said  the 

nurse. 
Right:     "The  patient  is  improving,"   said  the 

nurse. 

For  the  position  of  other  punctuation  marks 
used  in  connection  with  quotation  marks,  refer 
to  pages  344-346. 

Rule  9     Separate  the  day  of  the  month  from  the 
year  by  a  comma. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Right:  February  1,  1946  (not  February  1st,  1946) 
Right:  October  12,  1492  (not  Oct.  12th,  1492) 
Right:  March  2,  1620  (not  Mar.  2nd,  1620) 

[333I 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Rule  10  Separate  the  name  of  tlie  city  or  the 
town  from  the  name  of  the  state  by 
a  comma. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Chicago,  111. 

New  York,  N.  Y.  (not  New  York  City) 

Rule  11     A  comma  may  follow  the  salutation  in 
a  friendly  letter. 
Refer  to  colon  (page  341). 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

My  dear  Katherine, 
Dear  James, 
My  dear  James, 
My  dear  Mr.  Brown, 

Rule  12  Such  abbreviations  and  expressions  as 
viz.y  i.e.,  e.g.,  thus,  that  is,  are  fol- 
lowed by  commas.     See  page  339. 

Be  careful  not  to  acquire  the  "comma  fault." 
It  is  the  habit  of  placing  a  comma  after  every 
little  group  of  three  or  four  words  as  in  the 
following : 

a  It  was  a  bright  summer  day,  when  John,  w^alk- 
ing  hand  in  hand,  with  his  father,  saw,  crawl- 
ing, on  the  sidewalk,  a  green  caterpillar,  with 
the  woolliest  back,  he  had  ever  seen. 

[334] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

IMPROVED 

b  It  was  a  bright  summer  day  when  John,  walk- 
ing hand  in  hand  with  his  father,  saw,  crawl- 
ing on  the  sidewalk,  a  green  caterpillar  with 
the  woolliest  back  he  had  ever  seen. 

Through  the  omission  of  the  other  commas 
shown  in  a,  there  is  no  ambiguity  in  meaning 
in  h.  The  four  commas  used  precede  and  follow 
explanatory  expressions  which  are  really  paren- 
thetical.    (Rule  5) 

WHEN  TO  USE  AND  WHEN  NOT  TO  USE 

A  COMMA  WITH  "WHO,"  "WHICH," 

AND  "WHERE" 

When  the  expression  introduced  by  who, 
which,  and  where  is  parenthetical  (put  in  by  way 
of  explanation),  a  comma  should  precede  and 
follow  the  expression  so  introduced.  When  the 
expression  is  not  parenthetical,  omit  the  comma. 

ILLUSTRATION 

1.  The  man  who  has  the  large  hat  on  is  my  uncle. 

2.  The  man,  who  later  proved  to  be  a  friend, 

seemed  antagonistic. 

3.  The  house  which  was  built  before  the  war  is 

likely  to  have  cost  less  than  the  house 
built  since  the  war. 

[335] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

4.  The  house,  which  was  built  before  the  war, 

was  her  particular  pride. 

5.  The  house  which  was  built  before  the  war 

was  her  particular  pride.  The  one  built 
after  the  war  she  did  not  care  so  much 
about.  It  was  more  expensive  but  it 
looked  cheap. 

6.  I  found  the  place  where  we  ate  our  lunch. 

7.  Buffalo,   where  Fillmore  lived,   was  then  a 

small  city. 

In  sentence  1,  who  has  the  large  hat  on  is  not 
parenthetical.  It  is  really  needed  to  point  out 
which  man  is  meant. 

In  sentence  2,  who  later  proved  to  he  a  friend 
appears  to  be  an  afterthought.  It  is  thrown  in. 
It  is  parenthetical.  It  is  unnecessary  to  the 
sentence.  The  man  seemed  antagonistic  is  com- 
plete without  the  additional  expression. 

In  sentence  3,  which  was  built  before  the  war  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  sentence.  It  is  not 
thrown  in.  It  is  not  parenthetical.  It  is  needed 
to  point  out  exactly  which  house  is  meant. 

In  sentence  4,  which  was  built  before  the  war  is 
parenthetical.  There  is  no  way  of  knowing  this 
fact  in  this  particular  case  but  by  the  tone  of 
voice.  The  speaker  is  telling  about  a  home 
planned  and  built  by  his  friend.  He  wishes  to 
state  that  it  is  the  particular  pride  of  the  builder. 

[336] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Incidentally  he  adds  that  it  was  built  before  the 
war. 

In  sentence  5,  which  was  built  before  the  war 
points  out  which  particular  house  the  speaker 
means.  The  owner  built  two  houses,  but  the 
one  built  before  the  war  was  her  particular  pride. 

In  sentence  6,  where  we  ate  our  lunch  is  not  an 
additional  thought.  It  points  out  exactly  the 
spot  for  which  we  were  looking. 

In  sentence  7,  where  Fillmore  lived  is  an  addi- 
tional or  parenthetical  thought. 

Often  it  is  d^ifficult  to  tell  whether  or  not  to 
use  a  comma.  Saying  the  sentence  aloud  with 
proper  intonation  will  usually  help  you  to  decide 
whether  the  expression  about  which  you  are  in 
doubt  is  parenthetical  or  not. 

If  it  is  parenthetical,  use  commas;  if  it  is  not, 
do  not  use  them. 


SEMICOLON 


Rule  1  In  rule  2  under  comma  you  are  told  to 
use  a  comma  to  separate  two  com- 
plete short  sentences  connected  by 
andy  but,  or  or.  However,  if  there  is 
a  comma  in  either  one  of  the  parts 
before  or  after  and,  but,  or  or,  use  a 

[337] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

semicolon  instead  of  a  comma  to  sep- 
arate the  first  complete  sentence 
member  from  and,  but,  or  or, 

ILLUSTRATION 

a  She  walked  rapidly  along,  but  she 
did  not  know  that  she  was  followed. 

b  She  walked  rapidly  along,  deep  in 
thought;  but  she  did  not  know 
that  she  was  followed. 

Sentence  a  is  composed  of  two  complete  sen- 
tences connected  by  but. 

Neither  section  contains  a  comma;  hence  a 
comma  is  used  before  but. 

Sentence  b  is  composed  of  two  complete  sen- 
tences the  first  of  which  contains  a  comma;  there- 
fore a  semicolon  is  used  before  but. 

Rule  2  Separate  by  a  semicolon  two  simple 
sentences  connected  by  so,  therefore, 
hence,  however,  nevertheless,  moreover, 
accordingly,  besides,  also,  thus,  then, 
still,  otherwise. 

a  She  walked  rapidly  along;  neverthe- 
less she  kept  one  eye  on  the  stran- 
ger across  the  street. 

h  She  seemed  to  fear  him;  hence  it  was 
wise  to  be  on  the  alert. 

[338] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Rule  3  Separate  by  a  semicolon  (never  by  a 
comma)  two  simple  sentences  of  close 
connection  between  which  there  is  no 
connecting  word. 

a  Wrong:  She  seemed  to  fear  him,  it  was 
wise  to  be  on  the  alert. 

h  Right:  She  seemed  to  fear  him;  it  was 
wise  to  be  on  the  alert. 

Rule  4  Use  a  semicolon  to  precede  such  abbre- 
viations and  expressions  as  viz,,  i.  e.y 
e.  g.,  thus,  that  is. 

a  There  are  four  kinds  of  sentences; 
viz.,  statement,  question,  com- 
mand, exclamation. 

h  Short  ways  of  writing  certain  words 
are  called  abbreviations;  e.g.,  assn, 
is  the  abbreviation  for   association. 

Rule  5  If  the  meaning  for  the  moment  is  not 
clear  with  a  comma,  use  a  semicolon. 

Not  Clear:  a  She  had  gowns,  horses,  and  jewels, 
and  all  the  world  paid  her  hom- 
age. 

Clear:  b  She  had  gowns,  horses,  and  jewels; 

and  all  the  world  paid  her  hom- 
age. 

[339] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Sentence  a  appears  at  first  reading  to  mean 
that  she  had  gowns,  horses,  jewels,  and  all  the 
world. 

Sentence  b  shows  that  all  the  world  paid  hom- 
age to  her;  not  that  she  had  all  the  world. 

COLON 


Rule  1     A  colon  is  often  placed  before  a  long 
quotation. 

a       George  Washington  aptly  said: 


b       George  Washington  aptly  said: 


c       George  Washington  wrote: 


Rule  2     A  colon  is  often  placed  before  a  list  of 
particulars. 
The  five  Great  Lakes  are:  Lake  Erie,  Lake 
Ontario,    Lake    Huron,    Lake    Michigan, 
Lake  Superior. 

[340] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Rule  3  A  colon  follows  the  salutation  in  a  letter, 
especially  a  business  letter. 

Business  Social 

Gentlemen:  Dear    Mary,    or   Dear 

Dear  Sir:  Mary: 

Mesdames:  My  dear  !Mr.  Gordon, 

Deal  Madam:  or 

My  dear  ^Ir.  Gordon:  My  dear  Mr.  Gordon: 
My  dear  Mrs.  Gordon: 

ALL  THE  USES  OF  THE  APOSTROPHE 

> 

This  little  character  is  an  apostrophe.  Here 
it  is  '  The  word  is  pronounced  a-p6s-tro-fe, 
with  the  accent  on  the  second  syllable. 

To  put  an  apostrophe  in  the  wrong  place  or 
to  omit  it  when  it  should  be  used  or  to  use  it 
when  it  should  not  be  used  is  as  grave  an  error 
in  writing  as  to  misspell  a  word. 

The  apostrophe  has  four  uses: 

Rule  1  It  shows  the  possessive  form  of  a  word. 
Mary  possesses  a  hat.  You  write,  Mary's 
hat.  See  pages  41-61  for  complete  in- 
formation. 

Rule  2  It  sometimes  indicates  of  a,  of  an,  of 
the.     See  pages  41  and  42. 

[341] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

B-ule  3   It  shows  the  omission  of  one  or  more 

letters.     See  below. 
Rule  4   It  shows  the  form  used  when  we  wish  to 

express   more   than   one   letter   or   figure. 

Two  e's  in  need.     Three  3's  in  nine. 

Rules    1    and   2   are    fully   explained    on 
pages  41-61. 

Rule  4  is  explained  above. 

Rule  3  is  enlarged  upon  below. 

The  only  care  which  needs  to  be  taken  under 
rule  3  (omission)  is  that  of  placing  the  apos- 
trophe in  exactly  the  spot  from  which  the  letter 
or  letters  have  been  omitted.  Many  persons 
write  do'nt  for  don't  meaning  do  not.  The  o  in 
not  has  been  omitted;  therefore  the  apostrophe 
must  be  placed  between  the  n  and  the  t.  Words 
from  which  letters  are  omitted  and  in  which 
the  apostrophe  is  used  to  show  the  omission  are 
called  contractions.  Contractions  are  not  used  in 
dignified  correspondence.  They  are  correctly 
used  in  letters  to  one's  intimates,  relatives,  and 
in  speech  which  is  familiar.  You  will  find  many 
contractions  in  the  dictionary  but  they  are 
marked  "colloquial."  When  the  words  are 
marked  "col"  (colloquial),  good  taste  requires 
that  we  do  not  use  them  in  any  but  the  most 
familiar  type  of  letter  or  speech. 

[342] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 


CONTRACTIONS 


I've 

means  I  have 

you've 

means  you  have 

he's 

means  he  is 

she's 

means  she  is 

it's 

means  it  is 

you've 

means  you  have 

they've 

means  they  have 

they're 

means  they  are 

who's  there 

means  who  is  there 

don't 

means  do  not 

doesn't 

means  does  not 

'tis 

means  it  is 

can't 

means  cannot 

won't 

means  will  not 

shan't 

means  shall  not 

wouldn't 

means  would  not 

shouldn't 

means  should  not 

I'd 

means  I  should  (would) 

Ain't  is  in  disrepute  and  should  never  be  used. 
It  means  am  not  and  are  not.  It  does  not  mean 
has  not  and  have  not.  It  is  mentioned  here  to 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that  although  it  is  in 
the  dictionary,  it  is  a  vulgarism  which  no  one 
who  aspires  to  speak  well  will  use. 

Other  contractions  about  which  a  word  of 
caution  is  necessary  are  don't  and  doesn't.     It  is 

[343] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

wrong  to  say  He  donHy  She  don't,  It  don't.  Don't 
means  do  not.  It  is  wrong  to  say  He  do  not.  She 
do  noty  It  do  not.     Therefore: 

Wrong  Right 

He  don't  He  doesn't 

She  don't  She  doesn't 

It  don't  It  doesn't 

I  don't  is  correct  because       I  do  not 

is  correct. 

We  don't  is  correct  because       We  do  not 

is  correct. 

They  don't       is  correct  because       They  do  not 

is  correct. 

QUOTATION  MARKS 
((  » 

Rule  1     Use  quotation  marks  before  and  after 

the  exact  words  of  a  speaker. 
Rule  2     Use  quotation  marks  before  and  after 

each   division    of    the    exact   words    of    a 

speaker.     Refer  to  sentence  c. 
Rule  3     Use  quotation  marks  with  the  title  of  a 

book  or  a  composition. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

The   following    sentences    show   how   to    use 
quotation  marks.     Observe  carefully  the  other 

[344] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

punctuation  marks  and  the  use  of  the  capital 
letters. 

a  "At  least  our  friendship  has  brought  us  com- 
fort," he  said  in  a  low  voice. 

b  She  said  jokingly,  "A  bird  in  the  hand  is 
worth  tw^o  in  the  bush." 

c  *'But,"  said  he,  "we  lost  our  way  in  the 
country." 

d  He  recited,  "Listen,  my  children,  and  you 
shall  hear  .  .  .  ";  you  know  the  rest  of 
the  poem. 

e  I  have  read  the  following  books  this  month: 
"One  Increasing  Purpose,"  "This  Free- 
dom," and  "The  Amenities  of  Book  Collect- 
ing." 

/  Mary  replied,  "The  boys  are  walking  on  our 
lawn." 

g  Mary  said  that  the  boys  were  walking  on  our 
lawn. 

h  He  cried  "Fire!" 

i    His  silly  excuse  was  "unavoidable  delay"! 

Quotation  marks  when  used  with  period, 
comma,  or  dots  must  follow  the  period,  comma, 
or  dots.     (Observe  sentences  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f) 

Quotation  marks,  when  used  with  a  semicolon 
usually  precede  it.     (Observe  sentence  d) 

[345] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Quotation  marks  always  follow  any  punctua- 
tion marks  that  belong  to  the  quotation.  In 
sentence  h  the  word  Fire  was  uttered  in  an  ex- 
cited manner  shown  by  the  exclamation  point. 
The  exch^.mation  point  belongs  to  the  expression. 
Therefore  the  quotation  marks  follow  the  ex- 
clamation point. 

In  sentence  i  the  whole  expression  was  uttered 
with  a  feeling  of  disgust  at  the  lame  excuse  which 
was  expressed  by  the  quoted  remarks  of  two 
words.  The  whole  expression  therefore  is  the 
exclamation,  and  the  exclamation  point  follows 
the  quotation  marks,      ^unimportant ' 

In  sentence  g  there  are  no  quotation  marks 
because  the  exact  words  used  by  Mar\'  are  not 
quoted.  For  ]\Iary's  exact  words  refer  to  sen- 
tence /. 

CAPITALS  IN  QUOTATIONS 
vSee  page  317.) 

Caution:  Notice  that  we,  sentence  c,  page  345, 
is  not  begun  with  a  capital  letter  because  it  is 
not  the  first  word  of  the  exact  quotation.  But 
is  the  fi.rst  word. 

In  sentence  h,  Fire  is  begun  with  a  capital 
letter  because  it  has  the  force  of  a  sentence.  It  is 
as  though  the  speaker  excitedly  called,  "The 
house  is  afire  I" 

[346] 


I 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

HYPHEN 


Neither  lexicographers  nor  grammarians  agree 
upon  the  correct  use  of  the  hyphen.  You  will 
find  no  rhyme  nor  reason  for  the  use  or  the 
omission  of  this  little  mark.  Blackboard  requires 
no  hyphen;  brand-new  must  have  one.  Gram- 
marians tell  us  that  a  hyphen  is  used  to  separate 
the  parts  of  some  compound  words;  but  just 
what  is  a  compound  word?  Hatbox  appears 
to  have  that  distinction,  but  exists  without  a 
hyphen;  light-heartedness  is  a  compound  and 
requires  a  hyphen. 

To  use  the  hyphen  incorrectly  or  to  omit  it 
when  it  should  be  used  is  not  an  error  of  which 
to  be  ashamed;  but  if  you  are  precise  by  nature 
and  wish  to  use  this  mark  as  consistently  as  pos- 
sible, consult  a  good  dictionary  or  a  grammar. 
You  will  then  have  authority  should  a  dispute 
arise. 

Sometimes  a  hyphen  is  necessary  to  avoid  a 
misunderstanding.  If  you  wish  to  speak  of  a 
teacher  in  the  normal  school,  you  will  amuse  a 
few  purists  if  you  write: 

Misleading:  a  Mary  is  a  normal  school-teacher. 

Sentence  a  means  that  Mary  is  normal,  not 
abnormal. 

[347] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Clear:  b   Mary  is  a  normal-school  teacher. 

Sentence  h  means  that  Mary  is  a  teacher  in  a 
normal  school. 

HYPHEN  IN  COMPOUND  WORDS 

Rule  1  Certain  compound  words  are  always 
written  with  a  hyphen.  Here  are  a  few; 
for  others  consult  a  good  dictionary  or  a 
grammar. 

father-in-law  twenty-four 

mother-in-law  three-fourths 

brother-in-law  three  twenty-fourths 

sister-in-law  semi-independent 

six-cylinder  first-class 

Certain  compound  words  and  others  not  com- 
pound are  often  incorrectly  written  with  a 
hyphen.  Here  are  a  few.  Do  not  use  a  hyphen. 
(Authorities  disagree  on  those  which  are  itali- 
cized.) 

bookkeeper  biweekly 

grandmother  today 

Attorney  General  tonight 

commander  in  chief  tomorrow 

cooperate  boycott 

lieutenant  colonel  horse-power 

Rule  2     A  hyphen  is  used  to  divide  a  word  into 
syllables :  per-pe-trate. 

[348] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

A  word  divided  for  any  reason  whatsoever 
must  be  correctly  divided. 

Wrong:  perp-e-trate 
Right:     per-pe-trate 

When  it  is  necessary  to  divide  a  word  at  the 
end  of  a  line,  never  so  divide  it  as  to  have  only 
one  letter  at  the  end  or  the  beginning  of  a  line. 

The  syllable  preceding  the  dots  in  the  fol- 
lowing illustrations  may  be  considered  to  be  at 
the  end  of  the  line. 

Wrong:  a bove 

Right:     This  word  should  not  be  divided. 

Wrong:  ide a 

Right:     This  word  should  not  be  divided. 

Wrong:  inquir y 

Right:     in quiry 

Use  few  hyphens  and  use  them  correctly. 
DASH 

Rule  1     The   dash   is   used  to   show   a   sudden 
change  of  thought. 

ILLUSTRATION 
If  I  had  only  arrived  before  she  passed  away — 
but   why  lament   what   cannot   be   changed — I 
might  have  helped  to  alleviate  her  suffering. 

[349] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Rule  2     The  dash  is  sometimes  used  after  a  colon 
to  introduce  a  direct  quotation. 

ILLUSTRATION 

The  man  said: — "Watch  your  step,"  and  at 
that  moment  I  slipped  and  broke  my  arm. 

Rule  3      The  dash  is  used  to  inclose  a  paren- 
thetical expression. 

ILLUSTRATION 

Will  you  attend  to  the  matter — that  is,  if  you 
possibly  can — before  tomorrow  .^^ 

PARENTHESIS 

(         ) 

These  two  curves     (         )     taken  together  are 

called  a  paren- 
thesis. 

This  curve  alone      (  is  a  parenthesis. 

This  curve  alone      )  is  a  parenthesis. 

In  other  words,  you  may  say  that  you  will  in- 
clude the  expression  in  a  parenthesis,  meaning 
the  two  curves  facing  each  other;  or  you  may 
say,  if  by  mistake  you  have  omitted  one  of  the 
curves,  that  you  have  omitted  a  parenthesis. 
Some  authorities  apply  the  word  'parentheses  to 
the  two  curves. 

[350] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Rule  1  A  parenthesis  (  )  is  used  to  inclose  an 
interpolated  expression.  The  part  before 
the  parenthesis  and  the  part  after  it  must 
make  a  complete  thought. 

Wrong:  a  I  have  tried  my  level  best  (and  shall 
continue  to  try  to)  serve  you. 

Right:  b  I  have  tried  my  level  best  (and  shall 
continue  to  try)  to  serve  you. 

Test:  Read  sentence  a  omitting  the  part  inclosed 
in  the  parenthesis.  You  will  see  that 
the  remaining  parts  do  not  make  a 
complete  sentence. 

Remaining  parts:   I  have  tried  my  level  best  serve 

you.     (not  a  complete  sen- 
tence) 

Test:  Read  sentence  b  omitting  the  part  inclosed 
in  the  parenthesis.  You  will  see  that 
the  remaining  parts  do  make  a  complete 
sentence. 

Remaining  parts:   I  have  tried  my  level  best  to 
serve  you.     (This  is  complete.) 

When  using  a  parenthesis  always  make  this 
test. 

Rule  2  If  you  are  in  doubt  as  to  dates  or  some 
other  facts  of  information  which  you  are 

[351] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

recording,  you  have  the  privilege  of  using 
a  parenthesis  inclosing  a  question  mark  to 
express  your  doubt. 

He  was  born  in  Bohemia  (?)  in  the  year  1685. 

Use  the  question  mark  and  exclamation  point 
in  parenthesis  seldom. 

Poor:   He  delivered  a  sermon  {})  last  Sunday. 
Poor:  John  presented  me  with  five  pounds  (!) 
of  candy. 

PUNCTUATION  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  A 
PARENTHESIS 

When  a  parenthesis  ends  a  sentence,  the  closing 
punctuation  mark  is  placed  outside  the  paren- 
thesis unless  the  part  inclosed  is  a  complete 
sentence. 

1.  I  went  to  business  yesterday  (just  as  you  said 

Fd  do). 

2.  After  you  fully  understand  grammar,  study 

rhetoric.     (Rhetoric  is  a  high  school  sub- 
ject.) 

Use  a  comma  with  a  parenthesis,  only  if  a 
comma  should  be  used  without  the  parenthesis. 
Place  the  comma  after  the  parenthesis. 

a  When  Columbus  landed,  he  immedi- 
ately began  to  establish  friendly 
relations  with  the  Indians. 

[352] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

Wrong:  b  When  Columbus  landed,  (1492)  he 
immediately  began  to  establish 
friendly  relations  with  the  Indians. 

Right:  c  When  Columbus  landed  (1492),  he 
immediately  began  to  establish 
friendly  relations  with  the  Indians. 

Since  the  comma  is  reauired  after  landed  in 
sentence  a,  it  is  required  in  sentence  c  after  the 
parenthetical  date  which  refers  to  the  previous 
words. 

DOTS 


Rule  1  Dots  are  used  to  show  the  omission  of 
a  part  of  a  quotation. 

"The  snow  had  begun  in  the  gloaming 
And  busily   ..." 

Rule  2  Dots  show  a  vagueness  of  thought  on  the 
part  of  a  writer,  too  indefinite  for  expres- 
sion. 

Dear  Dr.  Gorton   ...   I  am  stunned 
at  hearing  of  his  death! 

One  good  way  to  learn  to  punctuate  correctly 
is  through  reading.  Take  a  good  magazine  and 
read  a  paragraph  to  get  the  sense.  Then  begin 
over  and  read  to  the  first  punctuation  mark. 

[353] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

Try  to  reason  why  it  was  used  in  that  particular 
spot;  why  that  particular  mark  was  used  instead 
of  some  other  mark.  See  if  the  meaning  with- 
out the  mark  would  be  as  clear  as  with  it. 
Sometimes  the  meaning  will  be  clear  without 
the  mark  but  it  has  been  placed  there  to  break  a 
long  sentence  and  relieve  the  eye.  One  takes 
breath  there,  so  to  speak. 

Study  the  following  to  see  if  you  understand 
the  reason  for  every  punctuation  mark.  If  you 
do  not,  consult  your  rules  for  assistance. 

1.  These  articles  are  in  the  trunk:  hats,  coats, 

dresses,  furs,  and  underwear. 

2.  I   like  ham,   cheese,   and  egg  and  lettuce 

sandwiches,     (three  kinds) 

3.  She  knew  every  modulation;  he  had  argued 

with  her  many  times  before. 

4.  She   saw   his   expression   change,    and   she 

quickly  called  the  maid. 

5.  She  saw  his  expression  change;  she  quickly 

called  the  maid. 

6.  If  you  do  not  obey  instructions,  you  are  to 

be  punished. 

7.  Water  is  composed  of  two  elements;  viz., 

hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

8.  The  man  called,  "Drop  that  gun!" 

9.  "Will  you,"  said  Tom,  "call  my  father  to 

the  telephone?" 

[354] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

10.  John  replied,  "Tom,  I  am  sorry,  but  I  am 

unable  to  walk  to  the  door.'* 

11.  "All  right,"  said  Tom. 

12.  Haven't  I  told  you — well,  what's  the  use  of 

arguing? 

13.  Please  open  the  door. 

14.  No,  it  is  too  cold. 


[355] 


joys 
rats 


KEY  TO  EXERCISE  i,  PAGE  40 

tables 


women 

churches 

fathers-in-law 

sheep 

leaves 


ships 

babies 

ladies 

oxen 

foxes 

knives 

nails 


pianos 

mottoes 

tombs 

scarfs  or  scarves 

fish  or  fishes 

moneys  or  monies 


KEY  TO  EXERCISE  2,  PAGE  53 

1.  He  is  taking  a  four  years^  course  in  a  tech- 

nical school. 

2.  The  table  was  set  by  the  man's  butler. 

3.  The  tailor's  clerk  demanded  an  increase  of 

salary. 

4.  He    left    without    giving    me    a    momenfs 

warning. 

5.  Four  years  ago  I  entered  the  school,     (the 

ago  of  four  years — no  sense  to  that — no 
apostrophe) 

6.  Mr.   Peters  stood  the  chair  upon  its  legs. 

{Its  does  not  mean  it  is — no  apostrophe) 

7.  Men's  clothes  are  severe  in  style. 

8.  We  went  to  Mr.  Rogers's  home  last  evening. 

9.  We  went  to  Mr.  Roger's  home  last  evening. 

[356] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

10.  I  think  that  ifs  a  business  asset  to  speak 

correctly. 

11.  The  deer's  head  was  injured. 

12.  The  deers  heads  were  injured. 

13.  These  books  are  theirs. 

14.  Mr.  Church's  hat  blew  off. 

15.  Charles's  violin  is  damaged. 

16.  I  wished  him  the  season's  greeting. 

17.  Mr.  Jones  just  left  the  child's  coat  here. 

18.  ]Mr.  Jones  just  left  the  city. 

19.  I  want  five  dollars'  worth  of  service. 

20.  The  people's  vote  will  indicate  what  the  feel- 

ing towards  the  matter  is. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  3,  PAGE  60 

1.  It  was  our  coming  in  late  that  annoyed  the 

chairman. 

2.  Does  our  walking  in  the  upper  apartment 

disturb  you? 

3.  We,  arriving  late,  took  seats  in  the  rear  of 

the  room. 

4.  Do  you  like  our  calling  to  see  you  daily? 

5.  The  note's  falling  due  on  Sunday  gives  us 

one  day  longer. 

6.  Its  falling  due  on  Sunday  gives  us  one  day 

longer. 

7.  It,  falling  due  on  Sunday,  can  be  paid  on 

Monday. 

[  357  ] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

8.  My  not  wanting  the  carpenter  on  Monday 

left  him  free  to  go  to  you. 

9.  7,  not  wanting  the  carpenter  on  Monday, 

telephoned  to  you  that  you  might  have 
him  for  the  day. 

10.  What  do  you  think  of  the  idea  of  my  study- 

ing to  be  a  doctor? 

11.  Had  you  heard  of  our  going  to  Europe? 

12.  Did  my  going  change  your  plans? 

13.  The  plumber's  coming  late  upset  my  plans. 
*14.   The  children's   being  absent    annoyed  the 

teacher. 

15.  The    ladies'    wearing  of  expensive   gowns 

indicated  the  extravagance  of  the  times. 

16.  He  does  not  approve  of  Mary's  traveling 

alone. 
*It  is  very  clear  that  the  apostrophe  with  s  is 
required   in    sentence    14.     Without    the    apos- 
trophe and  s  the  sentence  would  read: 

The  children,  being  absent,  annoyed  the  teacher. 
If  they  were  absent  how  could  they  annoy? 

Note:  If  you  object  to  the  sound  of  some  of 
these  sentences,  please  have  confidence  that 
they  are  correct.  Either  use  these  words  this 
way  or  change  the  construction  entirely. 

[358] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

ILLUSTRATION 

Sentence    4  might  read:  Do  you  like  us  to  call 

to  see  you  daily? 

Sentence    5  might  read;  Since  Sunday  is  a  legal 

holiday,  we  have  one 
day  longer. 

Sentence    6  might  read :  Since  the  note  falls  due 

on  Sunday,  we  have 
one  more  day. 

Sentence  14  might  read:  The    absence    of    the 

children  annoyed  the 
teacher. 

Sentence  15  might  read:  The    expensive    gowns 

of  the  women  indi- 
cated the  extrava- 
gance of  the  times. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  4,  PAGE  68 

1.  He  certainly  does  like  to  lie  in  the  sun. 

2.  Yesterday  Rover  lay  in  the  sun  all  morning. 

3.  Shall  I  lie  here? 

4.  Shall  I  lay  the  package  here? 

5.  Mother  is  lying  down;  don't  disturb  her. 

6.  Father   laid   my   books   on   the   table   this 

morning. 

7.  Father  was  lying  down  but  he  is  in  the  gar- 

den now. 

8.  I  vnll  lie  down  if  you  insist. 

[359] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

9.    Did  you  lie  down  yesterday  as  the  doctor 
ordered? 

10.  Mary   lay   in   the   hammock   all   yesterday 

afternoon. 

11.  The    responsibility    lies    with    the    railroad 

company,     (present)  or  lay  (past) 

12.  The    responsibility    lay    with    the    railroad 

company;  so    IMr.  Jones    forced    prompt 
payment  for  the  injury  to  his  property. 

13.  Mary  is  laying  the  clothes  away  now. 
14     She  lies;  she  is  not  to  be  trusted. 

15.  Have  you  lain  down  at  all  today? 

16.  I  had  just  lain  down  when  the  bell  rang. 

17.  Lie  down,  Rover. 

18.  Lay  the  hat  in  the  box. 

19.  The  children  lay  everything  around.     It  is 

impossible  to  keep  order. 

20.  He  has  laid  your  hat  on  the  piano;  please  put 

it  away. 

Sentences  3,  4,  8,  9,  13,  15,  16,  20  contain  an 
extra  italicized  word. 

Refer  to  notes  a,  b,  page  67;  c,  page  68, 
regarding  the  use  of  these  words. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  5,  PAGE  72 

1.  The   sitting    hen   could  be   seen  from    my 

window. 

2.  Does  my  coat  &it  well  across  the  shoulders? 

3.  He  is  sitting  in  the  other  room. 

[360] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

4.  I  have  sat  here  exactly  one  hour. 

5.  He  has  set  the  table. 

6.  I  set  the  table  for  mother. 

7.  Will  you  please  set  this  down  for  me? 

8.  The  woman  is  sitting  in  the  hall. 

9.  Do  you  sit  there? 

10.    I  sat  there  yesterday. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  6,  PAGE  75 

1.  Has  he  risen  yet? 

2.  What  time  do  you  rise  daily? 

3.  Did  Mr.  Brown  raise  the  salaries  of  his  men? 

4.  Last  week  we  rose  every  day  at  seven  o'clock. 

5.  What  are  you  raising  on  your  farm? 

6.  Where  were  your  children  reared? 

7.  A  rise  in  salary  was  given  me  last  week. 

8.  Please  raise  the  window;  it  is  warm  here. 

9.  He  raised  the  question  which  caused  the 

argument. 

10.  The  sun  has  risen. 

11.  Rise,   please,   when  your   guests  enter   the 

room. 

12.  A    gentleman    always    rises    when    a    lady 

enters  the  room. 

13.  What  time  does  the  sun  rise  now? 

14.  It  rises  at  five  or  a  little  later. 

15.  Yesterday  it  rose  a  little  earlier. 

16.  Bread  rises  through  the  use  of  yeast. 

[361] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  7,  PAGE  82 

1.  The  criminal  who  alienists  say  is  normal 

should  be  punished. 

2.  The  man  whom  the  alienists  judged  as  nor- 

mal should  be  punished. 

3.  The  man  whom  alienists  consider  to  be  nor- 

mal should  be  punished. 

4.  The  boy  whom  I  thought  artistic  failed  in  his 

drawing  examination. 

5.  They  invited  the  members  who  the  records 

showed  were  in  good  standing. 

6.  They  invited  the  members  who  were  thought 

to  be  in  good  standing. 

7.  They  invited  the  members  whom  the  officers 

had  not  invited. 

8.  To  whom  did  you  speak? 

9.  Who  shall  I  say  called.'^ 

10.  Whom  shall  I  call.^ 

11.  Whom  did  you  sit  behind  at  the  concert? 

12.  From  whom  did  you  receive  the  gift? 

13.  The  woman,  whom  I  knew  to  be  your  sister, 

rang  the  bell. 

14.  The  woman,  who  I  knew  was  your  sister, 

rang  the  bell. 

15.  The  woman  whom  I  knew  was  your  sister. 

(No.  15  might  be  considered  to  mean: 
The  (one)  woman  (at  the  meeting)  whom 
I  knew  was  your  sister.) 

[362] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

16.  The  boys  who  wished  to  obtain  positions 

for  the  summer  did  not  go  to  camp. 

17.  The  man  whom  I  thought  capable  obtained 

the  position. 

18.  The  woman  whom  I  took  to  be  your  sister 

was  really  you. 

19.  Who  is  there? 

20.  Whom  did  you  ask  for  the  privilege? 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  8,  PAGE  85 

1.    What  was  the  effect  of  the  medicine? 

2.|  He  tried  to  effect  peace  in  the  organization. 

3.|   His  effects  were  moved  into  the  street. 

4.  The  law  will  go  into  effect  the  first  of  the  year. 

5.  The  effect  was  immediate. 

6.  In    effecting    a    reconciliation    between    the 

brother  and  the  sister,  he  lost  the  friend- 
ship of  both. 

Do  not  consult  the  next  seven  sentences 
until  you  have  again  tried  to  supply 
affect  and  effect  in  the  second  group 
under  affect  and  effect  on  page  86. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  9,  PAGE  86 

7.  What  effect  does  that  type  of  person  have 

upon  you? 

8.  What  effect  does  the  medicine  have? 

9.  How  did  the  medicine  affect  you? 

[363] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

10.  That  man  affects  me  unpleasantly. 

11.  That    man    effects    harmony    in    whatever 

organization  he  enters. 

12.  The  girl  has  an  affected  manner. 

13.  The  music  deeply  affected  me. 

14.  Dr.  Ross's  sermons  affected  me. 

You  have  probably  missed  many  in  both 
groups.  The  device  is  one  of  the  most  useful  in 
the  book.  Grasp  it  today.  Never  make  a 
mistake  in  these  words  again.  If  you  can  use 
these  two  words  correctly,  you  will  be  of  greater 
value  to  your  employer.  If  you  use  them  incor- 
rectly and  he  uses  them  correctly,  he  feels  that 
he  must  always  look  over  your  letters  contain- 
ing these  words.  If  you  understand  them  and 
he  does  not,  he  finds  you  of  great  assistance. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  lo,  PAGE  93 
If  at  first  you  don't  succeed,  try,  try  again. 

1.  The  officer's  speech  did  not  affect  the  boy. 

2.  How  did  the  climate  affect  you? 

3.  The  effect  of  the  climate  was  disastrous. 

4.  The  ordinance  went  into  effect  yesterday. 

5.  The  punishment  effected  Si  sudden  change  in 

his  behavior. 

6.  The  punishment  affected  him. 

[364] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

7.   That  does  not  affect  the  situation,      (alter 

the  situation) 
7.    That  does  not  effect  the  situation.      (bring 

about  the  desired  situation) 
The  second  one  under  seven  would  be  a  rare 
use.     It  is  put  here  for  the  sake  of  any  one  who 
may  raise  the  point. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  ii,  PAGE  96 

1.  He  said  that  it  was  I  who  did  it. 

2.  If  you  had  been  they,  you  would  have  done 

the  same  thing. 

3.  It  was  not  she  who  called. 

4.  If  I  were  he,  I  should  go. 

5.  The  nurse  thought  the  patient  to  be  me. 

6.  The  oflficer  said  that  it  was  she  who  falsified. 

7.  Who's  there?     It's  we. 

8.  Who's  there?     It's  Z. 

9.  She  thought  my  sister  to  be  me. 

10.  I  thought  it  was  to  have  been  1  who  would 

present  the  prize. 

11.  May  I  speak  to  Miss  Smith?     This  is  she. 

12.  It  was  they  who  responded  to  the  call  for  help. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  12,  PAGE  105 

1.  I  felt  so  had  that  I  could  have  wept. 

2.  He  wrote  so  hadly  that  we  could  not  re^d  the 

sheet. 

3.  They  seemed  so  hind  that  we  engaged  them 

to  take  care  of  the  children. 
[365] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

4.  How  had  she  looked  when  she  was  dancing! 

(I  thought  she  would  faint.) 

5.  He  spoke  harshly  to  me. 

6.  Doesn't  she  look  had? 

7.  The  man  walked  rapidly. 

8.  The  stream  flows  swiftly. 

9.  The   nurse   acted   promptly   (in   the   emer- 

gency). 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  13,  PAGE  117 

1.  Did  you  draw  the  principal  from  the  bank? 

2.  The  principal  of  the  school  is  a  man  of  fine 

principles. 

3.  Principles  are  rules  of  conduct. 

4.  Principal    plus    the    interest    equals    the 

amount  in  the  bank. 

5.  The  principal  store  of  the  town  burned. 

6.  The  principal  character  in  the  story  is  an 

old  soldier. 

7.  Did  you  go  through  the  principal  streets 

when  you  were  in  Detroit? 

8.  The  principal  hotel  is  palatial. 

9.  Is  your  principal  a  man  or  a  woman? 

10.  We  have  no  principal.     He  died.     No  one 

has  been  found  of  high  enough  principle 
to  take  his  place. 

[366] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  14,  PAGE  122 

1.  I  should  except  this  one  in  passing  favorable 

criticism  upon  the  lot.     It  is  the  only  one 
that  is  not  satisfactory,     (exclude) 

2.  I  should  accept  this  one  as  a  gift  but  it  is  too 

expensive.     You  really  cannot  afford  to 
buy  it  for  me.     (receive) 

3.  All  of  the  boys  except  John  passed  a  physical 

test,     (excluding) 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  15,  PAGE  146 

1.  Shall  you  go  swimming  this  morning? 
(Is  it  your  intention.'^) 

1.  Will  you  go  swimming  this  morning? 
(Promise  me.     Answer:  I  will.) 

2.  Shall  you  travel  all  next  year?  (Is  that 
your  intention?) 

3.  Will  you  please  teach  me  how  to  knit? 
(Exacting  a  promise.  Answer:  I  will 
or  vnll  not.) 

4.  Will  you  help  me  to  clean  house?  (Ex- 
acting a  promise.  Answer:  I  will  or 
will  not.) 

5.  Shall  1  do  it  this  way?  (Never  say, 
''Willi?") 

6.  Shall  he  go  on  duty  at  once?  (Answer 
of  employer:  He  shall.) 

[367] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

7.  Will  Kate  do  your  marketing  for  you? 

(Is  that  Kate's  intention?) 

8.  Shall  Kate  do  your  marketing  for  you? 

(Answer:  She  shall.      I  request  it.) 

9.  Shall  we  assist  you?     (Never  say,   Will 

we?) 

10.  Shall   my    son    call   for   you?     (Answer: 

Yes,  if  you  please;  he  shall.) 

11.  Shall  we  go  now?     (Never  say.  Will  we?) 

12.  We  shall  drown,  I  fear,  because  there  is 

no  one  in  sight  to  assist  us.  {We  will 
would  mean  that  we  are  determined  to 
drown.) 

13.  He  shall  obey  you;  I  will  see  to  that. 

{He  shall  means  that  there  is  determina- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  speaker.  I  will^ 
from  the  speaker,  means  a  promise  to 
see  that  he  obeys.) 

14.  They  shall  call  tomorrow;  I  promise  you 
•    that. 

(7  will  is  a  promise;  therefore,  they  shall  is 
a  promise.) 

15.  Shall  I  telephone  to  you  about  it?   (Never 

say.  Will  I?) 

16.  John  and  I  (we)  will  assist  you.     {We  will 

is  a  promise.) 

17.  May  will  soon  leave  the  city.     {She  will 

is  not  a  promise.) 

[368] 


How  to  Avoid  Them 

18.  Thou  shalt  not  steal.     (Commandments 

are  in  the  nature  of  determination.) 

19.  You  shall  not  go.     (Determination.) 

20.  I  will  call  on  him  tomorrow  if  you  wish. 

(/  toill  is  a  promise.) 

Remember  in  a  question  to  think  the  answer 
out  first.  After  deciding  which  word  the  answer 
will  contain  (shall  or  will),  use  that  word  in  the 
question. 

Remember:  I  will  and  We  will  are  promises. 
All  the  other  uses  of  ivill  and  all  the  uses  of  shall 
are  directly  opposite  in  meaning. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  i6,  PAGE  171 

1.  Were  you  so  rude  as  to  give  every  one  but 

him  an  invitation  to  the  dance?    (except 
him) 

2.  I  asked  all  but  her.     (except  her) 

3.  All  but  her  were  asked,     (except  her) 

4.  Every  one  but  me  took  part  in  the  enter- 

tainment,    (except  me) 

5.  Everyone    except     me    took     part    in    the 

entertainment,     (but  me) 

6.  I  saw  all  but  them,     (except  them) 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  17,  PAGE  187 

1.  Did  you  engage  a  stationary  engineer? 

2.  I  am  a  lover  of  exquisite  stationery. 

[369] 


Pitfalls  in  English 

3.  The  stationary  tubs  are  out  of  order. 

4.  Why   did   you   build  stationary  windows  in 

that  hall? 

5.  Put  a  piece  of  stationery  over  the  crack  in 

that    stationary    window    to    keep    the 
draught  out. 

6.  Do  you  use  colored  stationery? 

7.  The  stationer  was  having  shelves  put  up  for 

the  display  of  his  stationery. 

8.  It  is  not  considered  in  good  taste  to  use 

highly  colored  stationery.     Neither  should 
one  use  ruled  stationery. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  i8,  PAGE  192 

1.  Leave  the  windows  closed  when  you  go  out. 

2.  Let  me  see  your  new  purse  please. 

3.  Leave  the  kettle  on  the  stove  when  you  go 

out. 

4.  Let  me  know  as  soon  as  you  arrive. 

5.  Leave  the  gate  closed. 

6.  He  took  a  year's  leave  of  absence. 

7.  He  said  that  he  would  just  as  lief  pay  the 

bill  now. 

8.  I  shall  soon  leave  for  New  York. 

9.  Let  me  go. 

10.   Leave  me  alone  in  this  room.     I  wish  to  be 
quiet. 


[370] 


EXPLANATION 

The  following  index  is  arranged  primarily  with  the  idea 
of  helping  those  who  are  unfamiliar  with  technical  gram- 
mar. Since  Pitfalls  in  English  contains  no  technical 
terms,  the  index  should  contain  none;  but  for  assistance 
to  those  who  do  understand  them,  a  few  are  included. 

ITALICS 

The  technical  expressions  are  printed  in  italics.  They 
need  not  concern  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  them. 
Their  equivalents  are  given  in  language  which  all  can 
understand. 

Illustration 

1.  reflexive  'pronouns,  106-110     (technical) 

2.  self- words,  106-110     (not  technical) 
Lines  1  and  2  refer  to  the  same  point. 


QUOTATION  MARKS 

Expressions  in  quotation  marks  are  those  which  should 
be  eliminated  from  your  speech. 

Illustration 

"Ain't"  should  never  be  used.  It  is  in  quotation  marks. 
(Find  ain't  in  the  index.) 

Badly  is  incorrect  only  at  times.  It  is  not  in  quotation 
marks.     (Find  badly  in  the  index.) 

[371] 


Explanation 

DASHES 

Short  dashes  between  two  words  indicate  that  other 
words  are  found  between  them  in  the  text. 

Illustration 

neither is,  174 

This  means  that  on  page  174  there  are  other  words  be- 
tween NEITHER  and  IS  that  may  confuse  you  and  cause  you 
to  write  the  WTong  word,  are,  instead  of  is. 


The  fact  that  a  word  or  an  expression  appears  in  the 
index  does  not  indicate  that  it  is  correct.  It  is  there, 
whether  it  is  correct  or  incorrect,  because  there  is  some 
information  about  its  use  or  its  elimination  which  it  is  ad- 
visable for  you  to  know. 

Read  the  index  through  many  times.  The  items  will 
intrigue  your  interest  and  you  will  be  impelled  to  look 
up  points  in  which  you  have  unconsciously  made  mistakes. 


When  you  have  read  the  book  from  cover  to  cover, 
when  you  have  learned  the  devices  and  applied  them  to 
your  everyday  speech,  your  desire  to  improve  your  Eng- 
lish will  have  taken  such  hold  upon  you  that  you  will 
further  pursue  the  fascinating  subject.  Your  English  will 
become  a  source  of  joy  to  you  and  your  auditors. 

Confident  and  unabashed,  you  will  mingle  in  any  group 
of  English  speaking  people,  serene  in  the  knowledge  that 
your  words  are  correctly  placed  and  pronounced  and 
that  your  language  is  correct.  Good  English  promotes 
assurance,  initiative,  and  success.  Begin  at  once  to 
acquire  it. 

[372] 


INDEX 


a,  24 

a,  an  (kind  of,  sort  of),  11, 

119,  120 
a,  an,  when  to  use,  231,  232 
abbreviations,  324,  334,  339 
abridged  dictionary,  237 
accept,  except,  120-122 
acceptance,  formal,  311,  312 
"accepted  of,"  121,  122 
accurate  speech,  174-180 
"acrosst,"  29 
action  words,  175-185 
address  on  envelope,    discus- 
sion, 302-306 
advise,  inform,  219,  220 
affect,  effect,  85-94 
after,  27 

afterward,  afterwards,  206 
again,  24 
agreement  of  subject  and  verb, 

129-134,  IGl,  162 
ailment,     aliment,      element, 

207,  208 
"ain't,"  24,  235-237,  343 
ahment,     ailment,      element, 

207,  208 
alimentary,  elementary,  208 
all  right,  "alright,"  13,  210 
almost,  most,  173,  174 
already,  all  ready,  210 
also,  26,  155,  156 
among,  between,  208 
"amongst,"  31 
an  (before  a  vowel  sound),  24, 
231,  232 


an,  a  (kind  of,  sort  of),  11, 

119,  120 
another     use     of     possessive 

form,  55—61 
antecedent  agreement,  162-165 
anyone,  etc. his  (her), 

11 
"anyone,  etc. their,'* 

11 
anything,  nothing,  14 
apostrophe,  41-61,  110,   341- 

343 
archaic,  31 
are,  is,  etc.,  174 
"  Aren't  I.^",  19 
arise,  rise,  raise,  73-76 
arraignment,      arrangement, 

219 
as,  10,  27,  155 

as as,  10,  155 

as,  like,  157,  158 
as  well,  26 

as  well  as,  etc.,  161,  162 
at  home,  28 

"attackted,"  29,  176,  247 
avocation,  vocation,  208,  209 
avoid  expressions,  51-53 
awake,   awaken,   wake,   225, 

226 


B 


bad,  8,  11,  100-105 

badlv,  8,   11,   100,  102,   104, 

105 
bar,  measure,  215 
began,  begun,  26 


[373] 


Index 


beside,  besides,  209 
best,  better,  31 
between,  22 
between,  among,  208 
between    (words    which    fol- 
low), 165 
"between  you  and  I,"  14 
"Weeded,"  28 
blocking,  300 
borrow,  207 
"borrow  off  me,"  207 
"boughten,"  13 
bring,  take,  201,  202 
"broadcasted,"  28 
but  also,  26,  155,  156 
but,  except,  168-172 


came,  26 

can,  mav,  15,  152-155 

"can't  hardly,"  23 

capital  letters,  rules  for,  317- 
320;  in  quotations,  346 

careless  speech,  33-35,  110 

certainly,  7,  15,  17,  18 

Christian  Science,  23 

Christian  Scientist,  23 

closing   sentences    in  letters, 
290,  291 

"coals  have,"  32 

coals  ("they"),  32 

collective  nmiris,  129-131 

colloquialisms,  199,  200 

colon,  340,  341 

come,  26 

comma,  325-337 

comma  (who,  which,   where), 
335-337 

command,  315 

committee  is,  are,  129-131 

comparing  two  or  more  ar- 
ticles, rules  for,  122-128 


comparison,  122-128 

compoimd  words,  348 

consonants  and  vowels,  231, 
232 

consul,  counsel,  council,  con- 
sole, 204,  205 

contractions,  147,  235,  236, 
343,  344 

correspond  to,  with,  221 

costive,  costly,  213 

"couldn't  hardly,"  159 

courtesy,  110 

D 

danger!  there  is,  there  are, 
131-134 

dash,  349,  350 

deleted,  depleted,  215,  216 

demonstrative  adjectiveSy  117- 
120 

dialectic  expressions,  200 

dictionary,  128;  how  to  use, 
234-245 

did,  13 

"died  awav,"  14 

different  from,  "than,"  "to," 
25,  220,  221 

"  diner,"  21 

dived,  25 

division  of  words  into  syl- 
lables, 3i8,  349 

"  doctress,"  "  instructress," 
222 

doesn't,  don't,  15 

done,  13 

don't,  15,  342-344 

"do'nt,"  342 

dots,  353 

double  possessive,  51 

"dove"  (dived),  25 

drank,  25 

dreamed,  27 


[374] 


Index 


*' dreamt,"  27 
"drownded,"  li 
drunk,  25 
Dutch,  German,  211,  212 


E 


he. 


each   one,    etc. 
etc.,  162-165 
ear  for  language,  203,  204 
effect,  affect,  85-94 

either or,  14,  174 

element,    ailment,    aliment, 

207,  208 
elementary,  alimentary,  208 
else,  21,  22,  229 
else's,  21,  22,  229 
enunciation,  238,  239 
envelope,  269;  address,  dis- 
cussion, 302-306 
etiquette  of  correspondence, 

306-309 
except,  accept,  120-122 
except,  but,  168-172 
exclamation,  315,  316 
exclamation  point,  324 
expect,       suppose,       think, 

guess,  225 
explanation  of  terms,  314- 
316 


false  syntax,  9-33 

family  has,  have,  129,  130 

farther,  further,  217,  218 

faze,  phase,  213,  214 

feel  bad,  100,  101,  103-105 

"feel  badlv,"  100 

fetch,  202,  203 

few,  less,  226 

"first  began,"  33 

folk,  folks,  211 


foreign  expressions,  28 

foreigners'  errors,  120,  261, 
267 

formal  correspondence,  in- 
vitation, acceptance,  re- 
grets, 309-313 

"free  gratis,"  28 

froze,  frozen,  13 

fuls  (cup,  spoon,  etc.),  210 

further,  farther,  217,  218 

future,  134 

G 

gender,  164 

German,  Dutch,  211,  212 
gerund,  55-61 
get,  193-200 
good,  22 
gratis,  28 

guess,  expect,  suppose, 
think,  225 


"had  ought,"  25 

"hairs  are,"  32 

hairs  ("they"),  32 

hardly,  23,  158,  159 

has,  have  forms,  when  to 
use,  181-185 

have  (twice  in  one  expres- 
sion), 20 

he,  him,  12,  14,  19,  110- 
112 

healthful,  healthy,  222,  223 

her,  she,  12 

here,  120,  131-133 

here  come,  comes,  31,  131 

"het,"  28 

him,  he,  12,  14,  19,  110-112 

him,  his,  30,  31 


[375] 


Index 


*'hisn,"  "hern,"  "ourn," 
"yourn,"  "theirn,"  53 

Honorable,  Reverend,  232, 
233 

"How's  yourself?"  109 

"hurted,"  28 

hyphen,  347-349 


I,  at  the  beginning  of  para- 
graph or  letter,  285 
I,   me,   12,    14,    19,   25,   SO, 

110-112 
"I  says,"  18 
"I  says,  says  I,"  18 
I  (thou,  he,  she,  we,  they) 
or  (me,    thee,    him,    her, 
us,  them),  94-100 
idiom,  198,  199 
idiosyncrasies,  155,  156 
if  I  were,  13,  172,  173 
imply,  infer,  205,  206 
"in  back  of,"  32 
in,  into,  230,  231 
in  the  circumstances,  231 
incorrect  sentences,  9-33 
inelegant  expressions,  4-7 
infer,  imply,  205,  206 
infinitive,  to  be,.  94-100 
inform,  advise,  219,  220 
ing,  words  ending  in,  55-61; 
care  in  pronouncing,  261- 
264;  complimentary  end- 
ings in,  284 
ingenious,  ingenuous,  212 
initials,  285,  324 
"instructress,"    "doctress," 

222 
interrogation  point,  324,  325 
invitation,    invite,    16;    for- 
mal, 311,  312,  313 
involved  future,  135 


is,  are,  etc.,  174 

it,  160,  161 

"It  is  me,"  95,  96 

"It  says  in  the  paper,"  160, 

161 
it's,  52,  53 

K 

key  to  exercises,  356—370 
kind  of  (sort  of),  119,  120 
"kind  of  a  car,"  11 


laboratory,  lavatory,  214 

lady,  woman,  222 

lav,  30 

lay,  lie,  62-69 

laying,  27 

learn,  teach,  159,  160 

learned,  12 

leave,  20 

leave,  let,  lief,  191-193 

lend,  loan,  206.  207 

"lended,"  28,  207 

lent,  28,  207 

less,  few,  226 

let,  20 

let,  leave,  Hef,  191-193 

letters,  267-309;  material 
for,  appearance  of,  267- 
269;  models,  272-279; 
form,  278;  salutations, 
281-283;  complimentary 
close,  284 ;  signatures, 
285,  292-294;  opening 
sentences,  286,  288,  289; 
closing  sentences,  290, 
291 

lie,  27 

lie,  lay,  62-69 

lief,  leave,  let,  191-193 


[376] 


Index 


lighted,  27 

like,  as,  157,  158 

"like  I,"  157,  158 

limbs,  15 

*'lit,"  27 

loan,  lend,  206,  207 

loaned,  28 

looks  bad,  100,  101,  103, 
104,  105 

lunch,  luncheon,  227,  228 

ly  (bad,  badly),  how  to  de- 
cide), 100-106 

lying,  27 

M 

material  for  letters,  267 

may,  15 

may,  can,  152-155 

me,  I,  12,  14,  19,  25,  30,  167, 

168-171 
measure,  bar,  215 
"mine's,"  20 
"more  perfect,"  127 
most,  almost,  173,  174 
My,  in. salutation  of  letter, 

281-283 
myself  (I,  me),  106 
"my  sister — she,"  13 

N 

nationality,  religion,  216 
negative,    14,    23,    24,    158, 

159 
negative  comparisons,  155 

neither is,  174 

nicely,  19 

nominative  or  objective  case, 

110-112;  to  be,  94-100 

"not  as as,"  10 

Dot   only but  also, 

26,  155,  156 

[37 


not  so as,  10,  155 

nothing,  anything,  14 
"nowheres,"  32 
number,  singular  and  plural, 
35-41 


O 


O,  oh,  228 

objective  or  nominative  case, 
110-112;  to  be,  94-100 

objective  pronouns,  165-172 

observant,  observing,  213 

of  which,  85 

"off  of,"  29,  160 

oh,  O,  228 

oleomargarine,  242,  255 

one has,  24 

one is,  24 

"one  of  the  boys'  mothers," 
20 

one  thing,   more  than  one, 
35-41 

only,  18,  188,  189 

opening  sentences  for  busi- 
ness letters,  289 

other,  9 

ought,    25;    should,    in   the 
sense  of,  151 


parenthesis,  350-353 
participial  endings,  284,  291 
past  tense,  181-185 
people,  persons,  17,  221 
perfect,  127 
period,  323,  324 
persons,  people,  17,  221 
perspiration,     sweat,     216, 

217 
perspiring,  "prespiring,"  16 

7] 


Index 


phase,  faze,  213,  214 

"plenty  good  enough,"  31 

plural  and  singular,  35-41 

pointers:  this,  that,  these, 
those,  117-120 

possessive,  41-61;  forms  to 
avoid,  51-53;  form  with 
inanimate  object,  52; 
without  apostrophe,  52, 
53;  preceding  ING  words, 
55-61;  preceding  gerund, 
55-61;  preceding  verbal 
noun,  55-61 

prepositions,  objective  case, 
165-172 

present  perfect  tense,  181- 
185 

principal,  principle,  113- 
117 

profanity,  6 

"pronounciation,"  14 

pronunciation,  14;  com- 
ments on,  237,  238,  240- 
243;  pitfalls  in,  240-243; 
method  of  showing,  243- 
245;  of  commonly  mis- 
pronounced words,  245- 
260 

provided,  providing,  10, 
223,  224 

provincialism,  27 

punctuation,  close,  conserv- 
ative, open,  298-300, 
304-306;  rules  for,  320- 
355 


Q 


question,  definition  of,  137, 

315 
question  mark,  324,  325 
quotation  marks,  344-346 


R 

raise,  rise,  arise,  73-76 
ran,  26 
rarely  ever,  20 

"rather as,"  27 

rather than,  27 

re,  24 

ready-made,  13 

real,  14,  20 

rear,  76 

"reason  was  because,"  21 

reflexive  pronouns,  106-110 

registering  at  a  hotel,  298 

regrets,  formal,  311,  312,313 

relic,  relict,  218,  219 

religion,  nationality,  216 

"remember  of,"  21 

"reuse,"  19 

repetition,      "my      sister — 

she,"  13 
Reverend,  Honorable,  232, 

233 
rinse,  19 

rise,  arise,  raise,  73-76 
rise,  increase  in  salary,  76 
run,  26 


saw,  8,  18 

"saw  where,"  12 

"says  I,"  18 

see,  6,  7,  27 

seen,  8,  18 

"seldom  ever,"  20 

self- words,  106-110 

semicolon,  337-340 

sentences,    incorrect,    9-33; 

illustrations,  314-316 
sequence  of  pages  of  a  letter, 

269 


[378] 


Index 


set,  32 

set,  sit,  69-73 

setting  up  drill,  24,  72,  73 

sex,  164 

shall,  16 

shall,  will,  134-147;  in  a 
statement,  136-140;  tab- 
ulation for  statements, 
137,     138;     illustrations, 

139,  140;    in    questions, 

140,  144;  mistakes  in  the 
use  of,  144,  145;  contrac- 
tions, 147 

she,  12 

she,  her,  110-112 

should,  17,  25 

should  (ought  to),  151 

should,  would,  17,  25,  147- 

152;   tabulation,    149;   in 

questions,  149-151 
signatures,    correct    in    let- 
ters, 292-294 
simple  future,  134 
singular  and  plural  number, 

35-41 
sit,  32 

sit,  set,  69-73 

"sitting  up  drill,"  24,  72,  73 
slang,  4-6,  200 
"sleeper,"  21 
slow,   slowly,   15,   100,   102, 

105 
"smoker,"  21 
so,  155 

so as,  155 

sort  of  (a,  an),  119,  120 
split  infinitive,  20,  189-191 
stanza,  verse,  214,  215 
statement,      definition     of, 

136,  315 
stationary,  stationery,  186- 

187 
stay,  stop,  226,  227 


subject  and  verb  agreement, 
161,  162,  174 

subjunctive  mood,  172,  173 

suppose,  think,  guess,  ex- 
pect, 225 

sure,  6,  7,  15,  17,  18 

"sure  did,"  15 

surely,  6,  7,  17,  18 

swam,  26 

sweat,  perspiration,  216,  217 

sweating,  16 

sweaty,  16 

swum,  26 


take,  bring,  201,  202 

talk  to,  talk  with,  230 

taught,  12 

teach,  learn,  159,  160 

th,  261,  264,  265 

than,  27 

than,  then,  209,  210 

that,  12,  21 

"that  there,"  30,  120 

that,  when  to  use,  84,  85 

the  (Honorable,  Reverend), 
232,  233 

them,  22,  30,  119 

"them  kinds,"  119 

"them  there,"  30 

then,  than,  209,  210 

there,  120,  131,  133 

there  come,  131 

there  were,  32,  132 

these,  22 

"these  here,"  30,  120 

"these  (those)  kind,"  118, 
119 

they,  32 

they,  them,  110-112 

think,  expect,  guess,  sup- 
pose, 225 


[379I 


Index 


"this  here,"  29,  SO,  120 
this,  that,  these,  those,  117- 

120 
those,  22 

"those  there,"  30,  120 
to,  between,  from,  by,  etc., 

words  which  follow,  165- 

172 
to  (in  connection  with  ac- 
tion words,  20,  189-191 
to  (separation  of),  20,  189- 

191 
to  be,  94-100 
to,  too,  two,  212 
troublesome      combinations 
(committee    is,    are),    129- 

131 
two  negatives,   14,   23,   24, 

158,  159 
typewriter,  31 
typist,  31 


U 

unabridged  dictionary,  237 
under     the     circumstances, 

231 
undesirable  expressions,  4-7 
uniformity,      through     the 

sentence,  162-165 
unless,  without,  228,  229 
us,  we,  12 

U.  S. "are,"  33 

U.  S. "they,"  33 

used,  33 


verb  and  subject  agreement, 

161,  162 
verbs,  175-185 


verbs,  principal  parts,  176- 
180 

verse,  stanza,  214,  215 

very,  14,  20 

vocabulary,  239,  240 

vocation,  avocation,  208, 
209 

vowels,  231,  232 

vulgarism,  see  inelegant  ex- 
pressions, slang,  careless 
speech 

W 

wake,  awakened,  awake, 
225,  226 

"was  you,"  23 

washerwoman,  222 

we,  us,  12,  110-112 

well,  22 

were  you,  23 

wh,  261,  266 

What  do  hens  do?,  70 

AYhat  does  a  dress  do?,  70 

which,  when  to  use,  84 

whilst,  31 

who,  when  to  use,  84,  85 

who,  which,  where,  with  or 
without  comma,  335-337 

who,  whom,  19,  76-85 

whose,  85 

why,  21 

widow,  23 

"widow  woman,"  23 

widower,  23 

will,  16 

"Willi?",  16,  145 

will,  shall,  16,  134-147. 
See  shall,  will 

without,  unless,  228,  229 

woman,  lady,  222 

words,  commonly  mispro- 
nounced, 245-260 


[380] 


Index 


would,  custom,  habit,  152 
would,      should,      17,      25, 

147-152;       see      shovild, 

would 
"wrench,"  (rinse),  19 


"yourn,"  22 
yours,  22 
yourself,  30,  109 
"youze,"  53 


[381] 


